Elements of Educational Psychology (Иностранный язык в профессиональной сфере — психология). Учебное пособие

Generally the term “personality” is realized as the role one plays in his or her social role.

Theories of Personality

A number of theories on personality are found in the scope of psychology. Among them, there are the following: type theory, trait theory, personality dynamics and psychoanalytic theory.

Thetypetheoryofpersonalityisthemostancientclassificationof people upon the physique,psycheand chemical.This theory is pertaining to the various observable characteristics displayed by the people like appearance, bodily comfort, ambition, pride etc.

Trait theories classify people according to their affluence in different traits like intelligence, emotionality, creativity, punctuality, submissiveness etc.

Allport’s theory of personal disposition suggests that the personality of the individual is composed and nourished by a number of traits, such as common traits, individual traits, cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits. Functional autonomy of motives means the behavioral pattern of an individual tends towards that end that was left short of in the beginning irrespective of its culminance.

Cattell’s theory of surface and source traits contends that all individuals have the two kinds of traits mentioned above. Personality emerges out of all traits-source traits that are implicit, but surface traits manifest themselves in overt behavior.

Eysenck’s theory of three basic dimensions holds that the hypothetical construct “personality” has basic dimensions namely neuroticism, psycholiticism and introversion-extroversion. This theory believes that personality traits are the products of learning and vary from individual to individual.

Freud’s theory of personality dynamics is based upon two fundamental principles — psychic determinism and compromise between the pleasure and reality principles. Psychic determinism means that behavior does not originate from our conscious mind. This theory believes that personality is a composition of three systems like Id, Ego and Superego. Id is very rude, irrational and energetic; Ego is very

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legitimate, cautious but dependent on Id. Superego is highly rational, well controlled and guides Ego as well as Id.

Carl Jung’s analytic psychology upholds that personality is a product of racial history (causality) as well as aims and aspirations (theology). Both the past as actuality and the future as potentiality guide one’s present behavior. He identifies the following as bricks for the structure of the personality – the ego, the personal unconscious, complex, the collective unconscious, archtypes, the persona, the animal and the animus, the shadow, the attitudes, the self and the functions. Karl Jung explains the dynamics of personality by two constructs libido or psychic energy and the psychic value.The functioning of personality is also explained on the basis of another two principles namely, principle of equivalence and the principle of entropy.

Alfred Adler gives a completely different idea about personality in his individual psychology. The major concepts constituting the personality of an individual as suggested by Adler are: fictional finalism, striving for superiority inferiority feeling and compensation, social interest, style of life and the creative self.

Kurt Lewin’s field theory views personality as the dividend of learning. It is initiated, developed and sustained by the dictation of learning and training in the psychological environment.

Personality is often confused with character. But character is essentially a moral term referring to the standards of right and wrong and psychology cannot enter into the study of moral condemnation or approval of behavior.

Psychologically, personality is all that a person is. It is a totality of his being and includes his physical, mental, emotional and temperamental make-up. His experience, perception, memory, imagination, instincts, habits, thoughts and sentiments constitute his personality. His tastes, style of life, enthusiasm, beliefs etc. color his personality. His clothes, digestion or lameness are a part of his personality if they make a difference to his whole outlook on life and influence his total attitude towards society.

Projective techniques enable the individual to project or reflect his own private needs, personal feeling and perceptions.

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Types of Personality

Personalities have been classified in a number of ways and all that can be done here is to describe some famous classifications to enable the readers to understand people.

Freudian classification of personality:

1.Oral-Erotic Type — These personalities seek sexual gratification from mouth activities. It is subdivided into two:

•oral passive type. — People falling in this group are dependent and immature in the thought process;

•oral sadistic type. — These people are pessimistic, suspicious and aggressive.

2.Anal Type. — These personalities are obstinate, miserly and orderly.

3.Phallic Type. — People of this type show self-love, exhibitionism, attention drawing etc.

Thedifferentfactorsthataffectthepersonalityarephysique, chemical and environment. Personality development can be accommodated in three broad viewpoints namely — psychoanalytic, learning and social role-playing.

Psychoanalyticviewpointstressesupontheimportanceofthe five chronological stages of life i.e. oral, anal, phallic, latency and adolescence.

From the philosophical point of view, the classification of per-

sonality is:

•sanguine — very active and unstable;

•choleric — very strong, rigid and angry;

•phlegmatic — very calm, slow and sluggish;

•melancholic — depressed and pessimistic. William James classified people into:

•tender-minded;

•tough-minded.

The former go by principles, are given to thinking, have an idealistic outlook and are religious and dogmatic. The latter go by facts, are materialistic, do not have any faith in religion and are inclined to be skeptical.

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C.G. Jung, a Germanic psychologist, has given us three types:

•the introvert;

•the extrovert;

•the ambivert.

The introvert is too self-conscious, his is turned inward in his thinking and feeling. He is slow in making decisions. He is reserved andlikestobealone.Hedoesnotformfriendshipsreadilyandkeeps in the background on social occasions. He is a daydreamer and prefers to read about things.

The extrovert is self-composed, he is turned outward toward the world.Heisimpulsiveandoftenactswithoutthinking.Heishearty and social, makes friends readily. He is fond of a crowd and enjoys being with people. He does not daydream much.

The ambivert is a mixture of both.

Ernst Kretschmertried to relate types with certain physical characters. He recognized four types:

•the picnic type is that of the jolly fat man, sociable, good-na- tured, friendly and genial. He is an extrovert, broad, sound in physic;

•the leptosome type is lean, sour-faced, unsociable, reserved,

even shy and sensitive;

• the athletic type is hefty and forward and the dysplastic group is made up of various irregular types.

Kretschmer tries to trace the prevailing types of insanity to each of these types.

Edward Sprangler classified people in terms of life values, that is, in terms of what things different people prize in life. He calls them ideal types as he is conscious that very few exemplify any pure type. Thecognitive typeisofthephilosopher,scientistorexplorerwhoseinterest is knowledge and truth. The aesthetic type is interested in beauty and is found in artists. Then there are people interested in cutting down cost and effort, they are described as economic. Industrialists, businesspersons and merchants may be placed in this type. The politi­ cal type includes public officials and politicians who are interested in wielding power.The religious type includes saints, mystics and priests seeking to relate the present with the next world. The social type is of

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performers andsocialworkersthatareinterestedinthewelfareoftheir fellows.

Summary

1.The concept of personality is very wide and all inclusive. It is, so to say, the combination of all the overt and covert abilities of an individual.

How do people come to be who they are? How do people think about, influence and relate to one another?These are the questions that personality psychologists try to answer.

2.By exploring forces within the person (such as traits, attitudes and goals) as well as forces within the situation (such as norms and incentives), personality psychologists seek to unravel the mysteries of individualandsociallifeinareasaswide-ragingasprejudice,romantic attraction, friendship, helping, conformity and group interaction. Although personality psychology has traditionally focused on aspects of the individual, its perspectives are tightly interwoven in psychological explanations of human behavior.

3.Every man is in certain respects:

•like all other men,

•like some other men,

•like no other men.

He is like all other men because some of the determinants of his personality are universal to the species. It is possible that the most importantoftheundiscovereddeterminantsofthepersonalityandculture are only to be revealed by close attention to the commonplace.

Frequently remarked, however, are the similarities in personality traits among members of groups or in specific individuals from different groups?

Finally, there is the inescapable fact that a man is in many respects like no other man. Each individual’s modes of perceiving, feeling, needing and behavior have characteristic patterns, which are not precisely duplicated by those of any other individual.

4. The writers suggest that clear and orderly thinking about personality formation will be facilitated if four classes of determinants

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(and their interactions) are distinguished: constitutional, group-mem- bership, role and situational. These can help understand in what ways every person is “like all other men”, “like some other men”, “like no other men”.

Study questions and tasks

1.What is personality? Highlight different types of personalities as categorized from different considerations.

2.Discuss the various factors that affect personality.

3.Explain the trait theory of personality with the special emphasis on the surface and source traits.

4.Discuss Freudian theory of personality dynamics.

5.Give a comparative analysis of Jung’s and Adler’s views on personality.

6.How can the classroom teacher help develop sound and balanced personalities in his learners?

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Chapter 4

Thinking, Reasoning and Imagination

The Concepts and Meanings of Thinking

In the words of William Kirk Kilpatrick: “By thinking we mean allthatanorganismdoesinadvanceofovertactionstosizeupthe confronting situation and make plans for leading with it”.

According to Edward Stagner, “the criterion of thinking is the discovery of new relationships.” Garret’s definition of thinking is in terms of “behavior, which is often implicit or inner in the sense of not being readily observable. It is carried on by slight muscular movements and by mental images”. J.P. Guilford considers thinking as “symbolic behavior”.

Thinkingcanbealsodefinedasanactivitythatessentiallyconsists of a connected flow of ideas, which are directed towards some end or purpose.

It is unanimously contented that thinking and learning are the two overlapping terms. There can be no exact point or line of separation.

The Nature of Thinking

Man is commonly described as a rational being and his rationality consists of his ability to think and reason. In a broad sense, thinking includes all forms of cognition, perception, imagination, memory and conception. But in a restrict sense it means either imagination or rea­ soning. Woodworth aptly describes the former as a mental manipulation and the latter as a mental exploration.

In imagination, facts previously observed are recalled and these images are combined and manipulated into new patterns. In reasoning, we mentally explore new relations actually existing between facts. Both are independent of the present and seek to meet a possible situation in future.

In actual experience, it may be difficult to separate the two, but when we think without images or mental pictures and in terms of

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words alone, the activity is described as a pure thought. But these both also lead to the solution of problems we anticipate.

In imagination, however, there are a number of possible solutions, in reasoning there is only one solution to be found and it is considered adequate for the given solution.

A thought is also a type of behavior, aroused by some stimulus present or absent and satisfying an immediate or remote practical need. This new attitude of psychology is to stress the relation between a thought and practical needs.

Whenitgetsdark,weturnonthelight;whenwefeelcold,wewrap ourselves; when there is a car coming, we move to one side of the road. These are adjustments to meet the practical needs of a situation. Similarly, thinking is cognitive in its character, it arises in situations, which upset or disturb our routine and call for a new adjustment. Thinking is oftendescribedasanadjustmenttoahypotheticalsituation.Buta man, when faced with a difficult situation, sits down and thinks. He goes over in his thoughts the several possibilities of action, tries them out in imagination and selects one for the action. Thinking is a delayed response in which an absent or a future situation is responded to.

In reasoning, an association between the several thought items is controlled. There is a definite problem and in its light the contents of experience are broken up into their component parts and regrouped into a fresh pattern. The situation that calls for an adjustment is analyzed and the reaction of the parts to one another as to the whole is clearly seen.

The analysis brings out common elements of several situations and they are grouped into a new whole, which is general and abstract.

Conditions Favorable for Effective Thinking

Conditions favorable for effective thinking:

•freedom from fixed assumption;

•motivation in thinking;

•some environment that places a premium on thought.

Thus, thinking is a very complex cognitive process that consists of an essentially sequential flow of ideas leading to a goal or purpose.

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The wells on which thinking rolls are objects,symbols,signs,concepts andlanguage.Certainstatesfacilitateeffectivethinkingwhichinclude freedom from fixedness, stimulating environment, abundance of time, relaxed mental set, informative affluence, clear comprehension, commanding emotions and etc.

The central theory of thinking ascribes the whole process to the brain only. It contends that mental maturity and enriched cognitive potentiality can ensure high thinking.

On the other hand, peripheral theory states that the process of thinking is carried out by the entire body including the brain that is a part of it.

In accordance with the nature of thinking, it can be of three kinds as perceptual thinking, conceptual thinking and imaginative thinking.

Perceptual thinking is based upon sensations and perceptions and is highly fragile.

Conceptual thinking is highly purpose or goal oriented which follows a definite pattern in the light of the experiences.

Imaginative thinking is the most rigorous type of thinking and is done in the absence of the concrete situation. The present scientific and technological inventions, discoveries and innovations are the result of imaginative thinking.

The following cognitive functions like direction, interpretation, selection, insight, creation and criticism are organized in the process of thinking.

The level of thinking as specified by quality is like daydreaming, aesthetic appreciation, information requiring, reflective thinking, creative thinking etc.

Conditions that Stimulate Thinking

Conditions that stimulate thinking may be traced to the environment of an individual or his personality. There are some types of situations when thinking is compelled to do. Face to face with rapid and far-reaching changes as our own times are witnessing, thinking is an imperative necessity.

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At first, the school is a community and if the pupils are not hedged in by too many rules, if the teacher, instead of giving too much guidance, presents situations in which pupils are called upon to make up their minds concerning disciplines, organization and social func­ tions; they will develop habits of self-reliance in thought and reasoning. The teacher should have a progressive attitude, should be constantly presenting problems to their classes for effortful thinking.

Secondly, thought is stimulated by contact with people of different views, habits, beliefs and culture. Radio, newspapers, travel-books shouldfigureprominentlyinthelifeoftheschoolasalsovisitstoother lands and people. Travelling should be encouraged and subsided by the school.

Thirdly, in the development of thought, language plays an impor­ tant role. It is not merely a means of communication, a medium of social intercourse, but also a tool of thinking.Thoughts and words are so closelyconnectedthattheonenearlyalwaystendstocalluptothe other. Thus, the word becomes a sort to handle the idea. Ideas are elusive, they quickly fade from consciousness and if we wish to organize ideas toahighdegreeofcomplexityandsubtlety,wecandoso byorganizing our expression in language. Words act as pegs on which we can conveniently hang our ideas and come back to them; they are vehicles of meaning and often bring back to consciousness the corresponding ideas. Many sciences like mathematics would not have developed without language.

Creative Thinking

Once it was believed that only talented people and geniuses are capable of creative thinking. Every idea that is original is creative from the point of view of the individual no matter how often others may have had a similar idea. Creativity is seeing or expressing new relationships. Creativity is possible in all the areas of life, thinking, working, playing or social interaction. In almost everything we do we can change old relationships into new arrangements; add new items or forms to the old structure. Each of us does almost everything in our own way.

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