harder to draw nutrients from, and therefore are seen as empty calories.

10)Participate in Meatless Monday. Meatless Monday is an international campaign that encourages people to give up eating meat one day per week (thought it doesn't have to be Monday). Eating less meat can have several benefits, and most people already have enough protein in their diets. Consider substituting with legumes, beans and tofu.

11)Eat less salt. Lowering your salt intake can reduce your risk of heart disease, as well as drying you out. If you feel like your food needs more flavor, substitute with heart-healthy spices such as cinnamon, cumin, turmeric, cayenne, oregano, ginger, thyme and rosemary.

(URL: http://www.fitday.com/fitness-articles/nutrition/healthy- eating/fast-food-nutrition-junk-foods-effect-on-your-body.html)

FOOD AND BEVERAGE MARKET IN RUSSIA

Russia has the world’s largest landmass and a population of 140 million people. Russia has a growing middle class and overall incomes are rising. The middle to high income population is concentrated around the two largest cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Due to a lack of local supply, Russia imports around 40 percent of its food consumption, particularly meat and milk products. Russia annually imports over two million tonnes of beef, pork and poultry meat.

New Zealand exported NZ$252 million worth of food and beverage products to Russia in 2010. This is an increase of 44 percent from 2009 exports. Butter accounts for 70 percent of New Zealand’s food and beverage exports to Russia.

The retail market is highly fragmented in Russia. However, modern retail formats such as hypermarkets and supermarkets are growing rapidly. Other key trends happening the Russian food and beverage industry include:

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•Development of transportation infrastructure to make distribution more efficient

•Capital investment into the food processing industry

•Increased health consciousness due to an aging population and increased awareness of health issues

•Busier lifestyles leading to increased demand for convenience

products and fast foods

Russian consumers are price sensitive and have become more conservative with their spending since the global recession.

However, consumers are brand conscious and are willing to pay premiums for particular types of food such as healthier products.

The Hotels, Restaurants and Institutions (HRI) sector is expected to benefit from Russia’s tourism potential. Russia has a variety of natural landscapes and will be hosting the Olympic Winter Games in 2014 and the Football World Cup in 2018.

Developments in the HRI sector are taking place in the largest cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as tourist cities on the Black Sea such as Sochi.

REGULATIONS

Russian regulations on trade can change frequently, so it is important to check with a reliable source before exporting. Russia is a part of a Customs Union that comprises of Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus. The Customs Union develops regulations that are then applied to the three countries.

Import duties generally vary between 5 – 30 percent. Imports will also face a value added tax (VAT) and customs charges. The VAT is usually 18 percent, but some food and health products are taxed at a lower rate.

Imported food and beverage products will require a certificate or declaration of conformity from the government as well as additional permits depending on the product.

OPPORTUNITIES

With the development of the food processing industry, Russia will be requiring more quality ingredients.

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There is an opportunity for New Zealand companies in particular sectors that are lacking domestic supply such as meat, bakery, confectionary, juice and diary.

High income consumers in Russia are becoming more willing to pay premiums for quality products. This is an opportunity for New Zealand companies to position their products as high quality and leverage off New Zealand’s clean and green image.

(URL: http://www.nzte.govt.nz/explore-export-markets/market- research-by-industry/Food-and-beverage/Pages/Food-and- beverage-market-in-Russia.aspx)

AMERICAN FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY

The American food industry generates approximately one trillion dollars a year in sales. Though the industry exercises a high level of financial, political and cultural power in the United States, it is at the same time extremely sensitive to public opinion. Major food industries have, for example, successfully lobbied for years against what they consider onerous nutritional labeling requirements. At the same time, many of the larger operators, seeing an excellent potential market in health-oriented foods, have themselves acquired or even started up their own “natural” foods subsidiaries. Forward-looking marketers have been adroit in turning challenges into opportunities.

A case in point involves baking-giant Nabisco, producer of Oreo sandwich cookies, a product so well known and well-loved in America that it even frequently appears on crossword puzzles. The trans-fats used to manufacture Oreos added greatly to the cookie’s distinctive taste, consistency and ease of manufacture. When transfats became the focus of health issues, and after litigation and public pressure on the subject, scientists at Nabisco’s parent company Kraft were faced with the task of eliminating the trans-fats from Oreos and other products without altering the taste and feel of this culturally important food item.

The Kraft team undoubtedly had the example of Coca-Cola’s disastrous introduction of “New Coke” in 1985 in mind; public

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outcry then against the new taste of the product led to a quick reintroduction of the beverage’s original formula as “Coke Classic.” Kraft’s size and its ability to invest 100,000 people hours in the project, led to a successful reintroduction of an Oreo with no transfats. Tasting panels could taste hardly any difference; American children gave no complaints. Turning pressure into profit, Kraft’s elimination of trans-fats from its Triscuit crackers, also with no diminution in taste and consistency of the product, led to a significant increase in Triscuit sales. The new requirements that trans-fat content be conspicuously displayed on food labels turned a threat into an advertising opportunity.

Ironically, the new Oreos have the same level of calories and calories from fat as the old Oreos. They are still “fattening,” on anyone’s diet. In the general battle against obesity, the number one public health problem in the United States, the food industry cannot be expected to take a leadership role (except in the production of diet foods, whose effect on the public health is speculative at best). The numbers are simple: the more people eat, the more food the companies sell. Nevertheless, industry leaders have started to give way to the inevitable need to accommodate the issue, initially on the school nutrition front. In October 2006, The Alliance for a Healthier Generation, a major initiative of the William J. Clinton Foundation and the American Heart Association (spearheaded by formerPresident Bill Clinton), announced a voluntary agreement by five major snack food manufacturers (Campbell Soup Company, Dannon, Kraft Foods, Mars and PepsiCo) to set certain standards for snack foods sold in schools, by vending machines or other means. The guidelines coordinate with education efforts, all with the aim of getting school children to eat lower calorie, more nutrition-rich foods and to have more balanced diets overall.

Free-market and libertarian theorists may argue that the public can pick and choose among a wide variety of foods; if the public is fat, that is the public’s concern. Food industry critics maintain that at least in the case of the nation’s children, the food industry has the responsibility to lead them into healthier gustatory

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directions. Food industry lobbyists are adroit at influencing federal and state agencies and legislatures, yet public concerns, needs, and pressure can have surprising results, as in the trans-fats and school nutrition cases. The industry and its critics (with the government caught in between) will undoubtedly battle it out for years over the issues of genetically modified organisms (GMO), sodium content of foods, nutritional labeling disclosure, governmental nutritional guidelines, additives, truth in advertising, and food security.

Issues of food safety can affect the food industry in a dramatic way; the American meat industry lost billions as a result of the discovery a handful of “mad cow” animals; E. coli contamination of the country’s spinach led to millions of dollars of losses in only a few short weeks. Commodity supply issues can also affect major production food companies; the increasing use of both sugar cane and grains for the production of E85 ethanol motor fuel has sent cost ripples through the industry. Drought and climate and well as energy supply issues come into play. The major players in the American food industry are finding it more and more difficult to maintain sales and earnings growth.

The true weak point of the American food industry in relation to its ability to control patterns of public consumption is its dependence on recognized brand names for foods both processed and fresh. Providers of private-label products, including the supermarket chains, mega-retailer Wal-Mart, and warehouse chains such as Costco, have over the years cut into the dominance of brand-name products. The growing market for artisanal foods has allowed small players often to compete on the basis of quality rather than on price and brand saturation. Brands—and there are too many of them—do not have the pull and marketing clout they once had.

(URL: http://www.lifeintheusa.com/food/foodindustry.html)

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FAST FOOD EFFECT ON HEALTH

In today's age of convenience, fast food needs no introduction. Everyone from a 2-year-old toddler to a 60-year-old grandpa seems to be enjoying it every chance they get. And why not? It's delicious, it's filling, is really affordable, and readily available just any time of the day, being only a drive through phone call away. What more can you ask for when you are living life in the fast lane?

Well, plenty of fast food is all good tasting, except that it is not nutritionally balanced and, therefore, unhealthy in the long run if consumed on a regular basis.

Fast food is loaded with calories from refined sugar and fats (especially, the artery-clogging saturated and hydrogenated fats, which are repeatedly reheated to high temperatures for frying purposes).

It is also very high in sodium, coming from common salt and other additives. On top of all this, fast food is deficient in dietary fiber and essential micro-nutrients like vitamins and minerals.

To make matters worse, heaps of fast food are normally guzzled down with gallons of sugar-rich colas which many fast-food restaurants serve free with food as an incentive.

To make a long story short, all this results in piling up of unused empty calories in the body, which get stored as body fat, till one day when you look in the mirror and realize that your great figure has been replaced by this creature in the mirror.

But that's not the end of the story, it's just the beginning. Consuming too much fast food not only turns a handsome guy into an unsightly obese man, but as Eric Schlosser points out in his book it is a big health hazard too.

And being physically inactive only adds to the problem of obesity. Not many people who love fast food are ready to acknowledge that obesity is not simply an eyesore. It is a major risk factor for a large number of deadly diseases like hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol, heart disease, and even many types of cancers.

Recent scientific studies have shown that high-calorie foods 70

rich in fats, refined sugar and salt could reconfigure the hormones in the body in such a way that they make you crave for such foods and always leave you asking for more.

In other words, fast food is kind of addictive; you get hooked on to it and continue consuming it in an uncontrolled way in spite of knowing that it is unhealthy. The more you consume, the more difficult it is for you to opt for healthy foods.

The situation is worse in case of children who from a very young age get hooked on fast food. Making them change their food habits from fatty and sweet foods and develop a taste for healthpromoting fruits and vegetables is a task easier said than done. Such children would grow up to be obese adults who have never felt the advantages of being a healthy weight.

To sum up, consuming fast food on a regular basis leads to many health hazards. But bringing about changes in eating habits is not easy.

To start with, a simple change that one could make is to successively reduce the frequency of eating fast food and eat more frequently home-cooked food, with plenty of fresh foods and vegetables.

(URL: http://healthfood-guide.com/fastfood.aspx)

POPULAR BEVERAGES

Coffee is a brewed beverage with a bitter flavor prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant. The beans are found in coffee cherries, which grow on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia, South Asia and Africa. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Coffee can have a stimulating effect on humans due to its caffeine content. It is one of the mostconsumed beverages in the world.

Wild coffee's energizing effect was likely first discovered in the northeast region of Ethiopia. Coffee cultivation first took place in

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southern Arabia; the earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. From the Muslim world, coffee consumption and cultivation spread to India, to Italy, and on to the rest of Europe, Indonesia and the Americas.

In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in native religious ceremonies that competed with the Christian Church. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular consumption until the reign of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia. The beverage was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.

Coffee berries, which contain the coffee seeds or "beans", are produced by several species of small evergreen bush of the genus Coffea. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways.

An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004, and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005. Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Consequently, organic coffee is an expanding market.

Many studies have examined the relationships between coffee consumption and certain health conditions. Whether the overall effects of coffee consumption are positive or negative has been widely disputed. The method of brewing coffee has been found to be important to its health effects. For instance, preparing coffee in a French press leaves more oils in the drink compared with coffee prepared with paper filter. This might raise the drinker's level of "bad cholesterol.

Tea is among the world’s oldest and most revered beverages. It is today’s most popular beverage in the world, next to water. Tea drinking has long been an important aspect of Chinese culture. A Chinese saying identifies the seven basic daily necessities as fuel,

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rice, oil, salt, soy sauce, vinegar, and tea. According to Chinese legend, tea was invented accidentally by the Chinese Emperor Shen Nong in 2737 B.C. Emperor Shen Nong was a scholar and herbalist, as well as a creative scientist and patron of the arts. Among other things, the emperor believed that drinking boiled water contributed to good health. By his decree, his subjects and servants had to boil their water before drinking it as a hygiene precaution. On one summer day while he was visiting a distant region, he and his entourage stopped to rest. The servants began to boil water for the skilled ruler and his subjects to drink. Dried leaves from a nearby camellia bush fell into the boiling water. The emperor was interested in the new liquid because it had a pleasing aroma in this new brew interested the emperor, so he drank the infusion and discovered that it was very refreshing and had a delightful flavor. He declared that tea gives vigor to the body, thus. That was when tea was invented, but it was considered as a medicinal beverage. It was around 300 A.D. when, tea became a daily drink.

It was not until the Tang and Song Dynasties when tea showed some significance in Chinese tradition. During the mid-Tang Dynasty (780 A.D.), a scholar named Lu Yu published the first definitive book, Cha Ching or The Tea Classic, on tea after he spent over twenty years studying the subject. This documentation included his knowledge of planting, processing, tasting, and brewing tea. His research helped to elevate tea drinking to a high status throughout China. This was when the art of tea drinking was born.

Later, a Song Dynasty emperor helped the spread of tea consumption further by indulging in this wonderful custom. He enjoyed tea drinking so much, that he bestowed tea as gifts only to those who were worthy. During this e same time, tea was the inspirationinspired many of books, poems, songs, and paintings. This not only popularized tea, it also elevated tea’s value which drew teagrowers to the capital.

Between the Yuan and Qing Dynasties, the technology of tea production continuously advanced to become more simplified and to improve the methods of enhancing tea flavor. During this period, tea

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houses and other tea-drinking establishments were opening up all over China. By 900 A.D., tea drinking spread from China to Japan where the Japanese Tea Ceremony or Chanoyu, was created. In Japan, tea was elevated to an art form which requires years of dedicated studying. Unlike the Japanese people, the Chinese people tend to view tea drinking as a form of enjoyment: to have after a meal or to serve when guests visit.

Tea was introduced to Europe in the 1600s; it was introduced to England in 1669. At that time, the drink was enjoyed only by the aristocracy because a pound of tea cost an average British laborer the equivalent of nine months in wages. The British began to import tea in larger qualities to satisfy the rapidly expanding market. Tea became Britain’s most important item of trade from China. All classes were able to drink tea as the tea trade increased and became less of a luxury. Now, tea is low in price and readily available.

The word “tea” was derived from ancient Chinese dialects. Such words as “Tchai,” “"Cha,” and “Tay” were used to describe the tea leaf as well as the beverage. The tea plant’s scientific name is Camellia sinensis (which is from the The aceae family of the Theales order), and it is indigenous to China and parts of India. The tea plant is an evergreen shrub that develops fragrant white, five-petaled flowers, and; it is related to the magnolia. Tea is made from young leaves and leaf buds from the tea tree. Two main varieties are cultivated: C. sinensis sinensis, a Chinese plant with small leaves, and C. sinensis assamica, an Indian plant with large leaves. Hybrids of these two varieties are also cultivated. What we call “herbal tea” is technically not tea because it does not come from the tea plant but consists a mixture of flowers, fruit, herbs or spices from other plants. Today, there are more than 1,500 types of teas to choose from because over 25 countries cultivate tea as a plantation crop. China is one of the main producers of tea, and tea remains China’s national drink.

Russian kvass is one of the best non-alcoholic beverages. By taste and nutrition values it has no match. Invented over a thousand of years ago, kvass enjoys the honored popularity and nowadays.

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In Rus the first written mentioning of kvass was in 989 when Vlalidimir ordered: ‘Give food, honey and kvass to people” while christianization of people.

20 years ago the barrel with kvass surrounded by people with cans was an ordinary picture of city landscape. Quenching the thirst the beverage was drank both by solid men and housewives solving the problem of dinner and supper with kvass okroshka. Children of all ages loved kvass for 3 kopecks: at the same time in our market there were no Pepsi, Coca-Cola and Fanta.

In the beginning of our century the habitants of villages eat kvass with bread, radish and onion during banian days 3 times a day, and during meat fare - 2 times.

The word kvass itself is of Russian origin and means sour beverage. But to be objective we mention that 8 thousands years ago the ancient Egyptians may prepare some kind of kvass — beverage from barley, something in the middle between modern kvass and beer.

Fruit kvass was known in ancient Babel as well, but Mesopotamia did not like it.

Such prominent historical persons as Herodoth, Pliny the Elder and Hippocrates honored in ancient times describes the beverages that were very similar to kvass. Moreover Hippocrates mentioned their medical properties.

First kvass was made of different grains: rye, barley, oats, millet. There were about thousand of recipes! Old kvass with mint and raisins, Russian kvass using rye and barley malt, northern kvass from coarse-grained rye flower, Iceland moss flower and black current leaves, white, red, rusk, strong kvass, okroshka kvass, with ginger, raspberry, cherry, pears… Kvass was made differently depending on the location, climate, season, family income and taste.

It was necessary to have kvass in each house and always. Literature sources described the art of preparation of tasty, spicy, flavored kvass was known to eastern Slavs long before Kiev Rus’. Popular artists created many kinds of kvass. It is difficult to enumerate even the basic kinds. Presence of kvass indicated the

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prosperity of the house, solidity and stability of household. Remember the poem of Sergei Esenin “Anna Snegina” where he wrote: “Each has shutters painted, meat and kvass on holidays “. A. S. Pushkin said the value of kvass: “And like fresh air they loved kvass”.

During past centuries a Russian could not live without kvass. Kvass was drunken during work, after work, before and after meals. Kvass was the beverage of each day.

The wide spread of kvass brewery in Russia was mentioned in the work of the doctor L. I. Simonov in 1898 where the author wrote: “… Brewery of kvass is spread as well as bread baking: it’s brewed in peasant’s, bourgeois, merchant’s and lordly households, in monasteries and soldier’s barracks, hospitals; the cities have kvass brewery and kvass brewers preparing kvass for sale. Doctors believe that kvass is hygienic and healthy beverage not only for healthy people but for ill as well. Lately doctors start to pay attention to Russian kvass and recommend it to Western Europe”.

The benefits of bread kvass are stipulated by availability of extractive and aroma substances created in kvass at different stages of its preparation—digestion, fermenting and so on. Favorable affect of kvass for human digestion can be specified by presence of lactobacillus owing to which the lactic acid is produced during fermenting. That is why kvass causes the same actions sour-milk products: sour milk, kefir, fermented baked milk and so on. Bread kvass is nutritive, it has digestible sugars, vitamins and other substances.

Kvass increase appetite, has high energetic value. Taste of kvass impressed the foreigners visiting Russia. Here are the word of Kasanova on kvass: “They have an excellent beverage… it is much more better than Constantinopolitan sherbet. It is easy, tasteful and nutritive beverage which is very cheap.” Nowadays nothing changed. It is not mere a chance that many Western European countries are interested in Russian kvass recipes. In the international competition held in 1975 in Yugoslavia Russian kvass (from Moscow) got 18 points, and famous coca-cola got only 9.8 points.

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True yeast and lactobacillus enrich the bread kvass with vitamins В, В2, РР, В, lactic acid. That is why kvass quenches the thirst, brace up, freshen well, its tasty and aromatic. These advantages of kvass specify the different nature of its use. Kvass quenches the thirst when the weather is very hot, restore forces and increase the capabilities upon big physical load, field works. Kvass is loved in tasty and fresh Russian national dish – okroshka, and it is used in the other Russian dish— botvinia. Kvass is used as the good desert beverage. Upon consumption of tasteful good and tickling bread kvass you do not want to drink strong alcohol and intoxicant beer.

The value of kvass is described in public proverbs and statements. Here are some of them:

Kvass as bread never bothers Russian kvass saved many people

And bad kvass is better than good water

Cabbage soup with meat if no than bread with kvass

If there were bread and kvass we would have everything

Today we may cook kvass from ready-made concentrates— dry kvass and liquid mash. In order to accelerate the fermentation some raisins are added to kvass.

(URL:http://www.chcp.org/tea.html;

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee; http://www.kvascompany.ru/en/products/history_kvass.php)

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GRAMMAR

PASSIVE VOICE

The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences an action rather than the person or object that performs the action. In other words, the most important thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence.Sometimes we use the passive voice because we don't know or do not want to express who performed the action. For example,

The passive voice is used frequently. (we are interested in the passive voice, not in who uses it.)

Plant breeding is practiced worldwide. (we are interested in plant breeding, not in who practises it.)

If we want to say who or what performs the action while using the passive voice, we use the preposition by. When we know who performed the action and are interested in him, it is always better to switch to the active voice instead.

Passive Active

The process of canning was invented by Nicolas Appert, a French chef.→ In the early 1800s, Nicolas Appert, a French chef invented the process of canning.

Over two million tonnes of beaf are imported by Russia annually. → Russia annually imports over two million tonnes of beef.

Popular books on some aspects of food science have been written by Harold McGee and Howard Hillman. → Harold McGee and Howard Hillman have written popular books on some aspects of food science.

FORMING

The passive voice in English is composed of two elements: the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + past participle.

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PASSIVE VOICE’S TENSES

(URL:http://www.ef.com/english-resources/english- grammar/passive-voice/)

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

A conditional is a sentence or part of a sentence that expresses a condition. It usually begins with the words "when," "if" (если) and "unless."(если… не..)

There are four basic conditionals in English, or in other words: there are four ways to express that something is dependent on something else.

1) We use first conditional when talking about possible future events.

Structure:

If + Simple Present, + Will OR Will + If + Simple Present Examples:

Lisa will be very happy if she enters the faculty of Food Engineering.

If it rains, we will stay at home and cook something tasty. Note:

You can use these modal verbs instead of will: shall, can, may. Examples:

If you fail, you can always try again.

If you refuse to try our national dish, the hostess may take offense.

2) We use the second conditional when talking about future events that are not likely to happen.

Structure:

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If + Simple Past, + Would + Base Form OR Would + Base Form + If + Simple Past

Examples:

If I won a million dollars, I would travel around the world.(There is a small possibility that I would actually win.)

If these products were dangreous, I would inform you immediately. (There is a small possibility that the products would be dangerous.)

We also use the second conditional when talking about things which are contrary to the present facts.

Examples:

If she worked less, she wouldn't be so tired. (In reality she doesn't work less, so she is tired.)

You would study microbiology if you were here now. (In reality you are not here now, so you don't study it.)

The verb BE has a special rule in this case. Usually we say: I was, he was, she was, it was, we were, you were, they were. However, in these cases, we use: I were, he were, she were, it were, we were, you were, they were. In other words: "were" is the only form.

Examples:

If I were you I would keep to a balanced diet.

She would support your report about vitamins, if she were here now.

3)We use the third conditional when talking about things which are contrary to the past facts. In other

words: events that did not happen in the past.

Structure:

If + Past Perfect, + Would have + V3 OR Would have + V3 + If + Past Perfect

Examples:

If I had woken up on time, I would have taken the bus.(What really happened was that I didn't wake up on time, and so I didn't take the bus.)

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Tom would have helped us if he had known we were there.(What really happened was that he didn't know we were there, and so he didn't help us.)

4) We use the zero conditional when talking about things which are always true, or generally true.

Structure:

If + Simple Present, + Simple Present OR Simple Present + If + Simple Present

Examples:

If you boil an egg, it becomes solid.

If you heat something, it becomes hotter. Note:

We can use "when" instead of "if." Examples:

When you eat snacks instead of proper meals, it does harm to your health.

(URL: http://www.really-learn-english.com/english- conditionals.html)

MODAL VERBS

Why do we call the verbs modal? Modal means expressing mood. Mood is a way to express the attitude of the speaker to what is being said. The modal verbs include can, must, may, might, will, would, should. They are used with other verbs to express ability, obligation, possibility, and so on. The verbs or expressions dare, ought to, had better, and need not behave like modal auxiliaries to a large extent and may be added to the above list.

Probability

First, they can be used when we want to say how sure we are that something happened / is happening / will happen. We often call these 'modals of deduction' or 'speculation' or 'certainty' or 'probability'.

For example:

The fish smells awfully, so it must be expired. 81

This bill can't be right. £200 for two cups of coffee!

Ability

We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability. For example:

She can speak six languages.

Scotland's food and drink industry could get a £750M boost, as the government plans to make public-sector catering contracts more accessible.

Obligation and Advice

We can use verbs such as 'must' or 'should' to say when something is necessary or unnecessary, or to give advice.

For example:

Students must do their homework.

To make the wine good, the acidity and sweetness of the grapes should be in perfect balance.

Permission

We can use verbs such as 'can', 'could' and 'may' to ask for and give permission. We also use modal verbs to say something is not allowed.

For example:

Could I leave early today, please? You may not cancel the market today.

Habits

We can use 'will' and 'would' to talk about habits or things we usually do, or did in the past.

For example:

When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant next to my flat.

John will always be late!

As you’ve noticed, modals are different from normal verbs:

1:They don't use an 's' for the third person singular.

2:They make questions by inversion ('she can go' becomes 'can she go?').

3:They are followed directly by the infinitive of another verb (without 'to').

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Sometimes modals can be substituted. The most important use of substitute phrases is in those cases where modal verbs can't be used. For example, the modal verb must in the meaning "strong necessity" doesn't have the past form, so the substitute phrase have to (necessity) is typically used instead of the modal verb MUST in the past tense. For example,

Maria must go to the bank today.

Мария должна пойти в банк сегодня. (большая необходимость)

Mary had to go to the bank yesterday.

Мария должна была пойти в банк вчера.

(URL:http://usefulenglish.ru/grammar/modal-verbs-introduction http://www.really-learn-english.com/english-modal-verbs.html http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-lesson- modals.php)

GERUND

Gerund is a verb ending with –ing that functions as a noun in a sentence. A gerund is formed by adding –ing to the infinitive form of the verb. (listen + ing+= listening, talk + ing = talking) Since a gerund is base on a verb, it indicates an action or a state of being. A gerund can be seen as a subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition. For example,

As a Subject

Smoking is prohibited.

Eating proper breakfast gets your metabolism processes started for the whole day.

As a Direct Subject

They encourage steaming or boiling food, but forbid frying things in oil.

As a Subject Complement

The only way for you to feel better is changing your food

habits.

As an Object of Preposition

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Public health recommendations for healthy eating urge people to eat a plant-based diet of whole foods, minimizing processed food, salt and sugar.

Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in order to achieve the desired taste.

PARTICIPLE

A participle is a verb that is used as an adjective. In the English language, there are two kinds of participles; present participle (I) and past participle (II). In fact, the formation of the present participle is the same as the formation of gerund, that is it is formed with the help of the –ing ending. The present participle expresses the state of being or an action, as it is based on a verb. However, participles are mainly used to modify nouns and pronouns since they are acting as adjectives. A Participle has the following functions:

Continuous Aspects

High income consumers in Russia are becoming more willing to pay premiums for quality products.

Adjective

With sparkling wines such as Champagne, an additional fermentation takes place inside the bottle.

Participle Clauses

I saw him thinking over the chemical experiment. (Participle I) Having worked in a factory, she knew the seriousness of the

process. (Participle II)

Many English learners face difficulties in distinguishing the difference between gerund and participle since both gerund formation and present participle formation is similar. However, the main difference between these two forms is that gerund is a noun while a participle is an adjective. Besides, gerund can be observed in a sentence as a subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition and participle can be seen as a modifier.

(URL:http://pediaa.com/difference-between-gerund-and- participle/)

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PROPER NAMES AND THEIR USAGE

Proper names (or nouns) in English are always capitalized. Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in

uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any group of people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle of the country, or we can be more specific and say Lake Michigan, which distinguishes it from every other lake on earth. So, we must capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns. Examples:

the Golden Gate Bridge the Grand Canyon

a Russian song

a Shakespearean sonnet a Freudian slip

Besides, there is a list of references to be capitalized. Here they are:

Brand names Companies

Days of the week and months of the year Governmental matters

Congress, the U.S. Constitution, the Electoral College, Department of Agriculture.

Historical episodes and eras

the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression

Holidays

Institutions

Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music

Manmade structures

the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic

Manmade territories

Berlin, Montana, Cook County

Natural and manmade landmarks

Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam 85

Nicknames and epithets

Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of

Swat

Organizations

American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment

Planets

Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on capitalizing earth, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed specifically as a planet: We learned that Earth travels through space at 66,700 miles per hour.

Races, nationalities, and tribes

Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American (Note: white and black in reference to race are lowercase)

Religions and names of deities

Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic.

Special occasions

the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival

Streets and roads

(URL:http://english.tutorvista.com/grammar/capitalization.html)

DIRECT OBJECT

A direct object is always governed by the action of the verb and receives the action of the verb. The direct object is a noun or a pronoun. Direct objects are very easy to identify. You simply have to find the subject and the verb of the sentence and then you have to ask the question who or what. Look at the following examples:

Wine makers typically follow five steps (harvesting, crushing and pressing, fermentation, clarification, and aging and bottling).

To create a sweet wine, wine makers will sometimes stop the process before all of the sugar is converted

In both of the sentences given above, we can see direct objects. In the first sentence, the subject is ‘wine makers.’ The verb

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is ‘follow.’ So, then we ask the question wine makers follow what? We get a clear answer as five steps. ‘five steps’ is the direct object in this sentence; it is a noun, as well as it is clearly subjected to the action of the verb. In the second sentence, ‘wine makers’ is the subject. Then, ‘stop’ is the verb. Now, the question is wine makers stop what? The answer is the process. So, in the second sentence, the direct object is ‘the process’.

INDIRECT OBJECT

An indirect object is a person or thing that the action is done to or for. The indirect object usually comes just before the direct object. You could also say that the indirect object is the receiver of the direct object. For example:

The waiter brought us a delicious pudding.

To whom did the waiter bring the pudding? To us. So "us" is the indirect object.

(URL: http://www.really-learn-english.com/english-direct- object-indirect-object-and-object-of-the-preposition.html http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-direct- objects-and-vs-indirect-objects/)

PRESENT SIMPLE USAGE

The simple present tense is used in English for the following purposes:

Repeated actions Simple statements of fact World truths

With verbs of the senses and mental processes In jokes and story telling

To refer to the future

1) Repeated actions

The present simple tense is very often used with adverbs of repeated time. Look at these examples:

I always come to school by car. 87

She frequently arrives here before me. He never forgets to have breakfast.

Once a year I fly back to visit my family in Korea. Do you ever eat in the cafeteria?

2) Simple statements of fact

When we want to state a fact or ask a question without any time reference, we use the present simple tense.

I live in Kazan.

For breakfast he eats rice and drinks cold milk. She works very hard.

I don't like horror films!

Does this dairy product contain sugar?

3) World truths

Statements about rules of nature and the way the world is are in the present simple tense.

The sun sets in the West.

Most babies learn to speak when they are about two years old. Food provides nutritional support for the body.

Few people live to be 100 years old. Money doesn't guarantee happiness.

4) Verbs of the senses and mental processes

The present simple tense is used for many verbs of thinking, feeling and sensing. The most common words are:

She prefers red wine to rose one.

I love lying in bed late on Sunday mornings. This doesn't taste very good, does it?

Do you remember the first time we met? Does he understand which way to go?

5) In jokes, anecdotes and film or book summaries

The present simple tense is very often used in jokes and when telling a story to make the joke or story seem more immediate. This use of the present tense is sometimes called the graphic present. The

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present simple is also used to retell what happens in a book or film. For example,

So in he walks with a parrot on his shoulder.

In his new film Robert Redford plays the part of a brave cowboy.

6) To refer to the future

The present simple is often used to refer to future events that are scheduled (and outside of our control).

Hurry up! The train departs in 10 minutes.

I leave Frankfurt at 5 o'clock in the morning and arrive in New York at midnight the next day.

She has a piano lesson after school today.

There's no need to hurry. The train doesn't leave for another 30 minutes.

When does the meeting begin?

(URL: http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/rules/pressimp.htm)

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns, pronouns and other words in a sentence. Most often they come before a noun. They never change their form, regardless of the case, gender etc. of the word they are referring to.

Prepositions typically come before a noun. For example: after class, at home, before Tuesday, etc. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence.

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English.

Prepositions of Time:

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(URL:http://www.englishlanguageguide.com/grammar/prepo sition.asp)

LINKING WORDS

Linking words help you to connect ideas and sentences when you speak or write English. We can use linking words to give examples, add information, summarise, sequence information, give a reason or result, or to contrast ideas.

Here's a list of the most common linking words and phrases: Giving examples (for example, for instance)

Adding information (in addition, as well as, also, too, furthermore, moreover, apart from, in addition to, besides)

Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. ("We also spoke about marketing.") You can use also with not only to give

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emphasis. ("We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition.")

We don't usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition, or In addition to this…

As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence. ("As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition.")or ("We are interested in costs as well as the competition.")

Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means as well. ("They were concerned too.") or ("I, too, was concerned.")

Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in addition to. ("Apart from Nestle, we are the largest food manufacturer.") or ("Besides Nestle, we are the largest food manufacturer.")

Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making. ("Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the competition.")

Summarising (in short, in brief, in summary, to summarise, in a nutshell, in conclusion, to conclude)

We normally use these words at the beginning of the sentence to give a summary of what we have said or written.

Sequencing ideas ( The former…, the latter; firstly, secondly, finally; The first point is…; Lastly)

The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points. ("Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the final term.")

Firstly, … secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas. It's rare to use "fourthly", or "fifthly". Instead, try the first point, the second point, the third point and so on.

Giving a reason (Due to/ due to the fact that, owing to/ owing to the fact that, because, because of, since, as)

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Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun.("Due to the unfavourable weather conditions, the harvest suffered greatly.") or ("Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2 weeks.")

If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb and object), you must follow the words with the fact that. ("Due to the fact that weather conditions were unfavourable, the harvest suffered greatly.") or ("Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to fulfill all its orders.")

Because of is followed by a noun. ("Because of insecure storage facilities, the dairy products got out of order.")

Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. For example, "Because storage facilities were insecure, the dairy products got out of order." or ", The dairy products got out of order, because storage facilities were insecure.".

Since and as mean because. ("Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff.") or (“As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff.")

Giving a result (therefore, so, consequently, as a result, this means that)

Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a similar way. ("The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a result, they are taking on extra staff.")

So is more informal.

Contrasting ideas (but, however, although/ even though, despite / despite the fact that, in spite of/ in spite of the fact that, nevertheless, while, whereas, unlike)

But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence. ("He works hard, but he doesn't earn much.") but ("He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much.")

Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast. With these words, you must have two halves of a sentence. ("The term health food has been used since the 1920s, although the term has no official definition.") or ("In spite of not having an

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official definition, the term health food has been used since the 1920s

.")

Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and owing to. They must be followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that.

("Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees.")

Nevertheless mean in spite of that or anyway.("This company ensures food safety, nevertheless, the food industry currently faces various problems, including fears of radiation contamination, bird flu,etc."= In spite of the fact that this company ensures food safety.)

While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are different from each other. ("While mechanical harvesters economize time, manual harvesting is more careful.") or ("Taxes have gone up, whereas social security contributions have gone down.") or (“Unlike wheat, where vital nutritional bran and germ are usually removed during milling, the vital substances of spelt are found in the inner kernel of the grain.")

(URL: http://www.english-at-home.com/grammar/linking-words/)

USED TO vs WOULD

Used to and would describe actions, situations, and events that happened in the past. Although these two verbs can be used interchangeably in some cases, there are some differences between the two.

The main difference between used to and would is that used to can be used with both action verbs and stative verbs whereas would is only used with action verbs.

Used to is mainly used to describe repeated actions in the past, that no longer happen. Therefore, it cannot be used with actions that still happen. Used to is always followed by another verb, for example:

I used to eat a lot of chocolate but now I am on a diet. He used to make delicious apple pies.

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As seen from the above examples, used to can be used with action verbs. It can also be used with state verbs like love, like, feel, etc. Verbs like live and have can also be used with used to.

I used to love this cartoon.

For some reason she used to feel happier when putting on her weight.

Would can also be used to indicate a repeated action, situation or event in the past. Would is always used with action verbs. For example,

Every Sunday, we would visit our grandmother.

It is important to notice that would cannot be used with stative verbs to describe the past actions. It is always safe to use used to with such verbs.

I used to love gardening in my vineyard.

It is also important to notice that when you are using would to indicate the past, the time period or the situation should always be established. For example, ‘we would go camping’ has no definite meaning as it doesn’t indicate the time clearly. But, ‘Every summer, we would go camping’ makes more sense since it indicates the time.

You might have also notice that used to is the more familiar and commonly used word out of these two. Would, in this sense, is not much used in the spoken context since it sounds a bit formal.

SENTENCE CLAUSES

What is a clause in a sentence? A clause is a group of words with a (s) subject and a (v) verb. For example:

(s) Computers (v) are important.

We can have two clauses though i.e. two groups of words with a subject and a verb:

Computers are important, but they are dangerous too. … three sentence clauses,

Computers are important, but they can be dangerous too, so we must be careful.

…and four sentence clauses and even more ones.

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Computers are important, but they can be dangerous too, so we must be careful when we use them.

You'll have noticed then that a sentence is not the same thing as a clause.

A sentence is the group of words that comes between two full-stops and it must be a complete thought that makes sense. So sentence clauses are what build a sentence, and one sentence can have a number of clauses.

(URL://www.ieltsbuddy.com/sentence-clauses.html)

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EDUCATIONAL EDITION

Linara Kashafutdinova

BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FOOD

AND WINEMAKING

Основные сведения о пище и виноделии

Responsible for publishing S. R. Abzalova

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Kazan National Research Technological University Press

Offset laboratory of Kazan National Research Technological University

420015, Kazan, Karl Marx street, 68

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