Английский язык для студентов юридических вузов и факультетов. Учебник

LESSON EIGHT

•Expanding opportunities for young people to receive education that meets their needs and is flexible in delivery,

•Ensuring a strong curriculum, best-practice teaching and supportive technologies,

•Creating educational environments in which all students are valued for their unique abilities and strengths,

•Equipping young people to use technology well,

•Improving teacher numbers and quality, and

•Promoting rigorous assessment.

•Prioritizing connection to education and training for those most at risk of disengaging, and strengthening links between schools and communities to increase coordination of supports for these young people and their families.

•Increasing student awareness of possible careers, further study options and understanding of the workplace.

•Developing effective responses to the specific needs of young people in accessing and undertaking educational and employment opportunities.

•Promoting young people’s right to a fair workplace.

3.Would you start your own business? Give your reasons.

V.Role Plays

I

Role 1: You are going to start your own business in the form of a proprietorship. Consult your lawyer.

Role 2: You are a lawyer. You should consult your client on pros and cons of having a proprietorship.

II

You are the directors of a small company that manufacturers pet food. The recession has hit profits and you are looking for ways to cut costs and generate extra income. You have each worked out different ways of finding some extra money. Explain your proposals, find out about your colleagues’ proposals and then decide on the best course of the action together. You can put cheaper ingredients in the products; freeze wages; delay payments to your suppliers; halve the research and development budget; pack the products in paper cartons instead of tins; reduce the temperature in the offices to 18°C; cancel the staff Christmas party; stop all spending on advertising; demand larger discounts from our suppliers; travel economy class instead of first class on flights; install meters in the staff car park.

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Attention Mr. White

SMITH AND BROWN OFFICE SUPPLIERS.INC.

16 South Road Berkley, CA 91419 U.S.A.

II. Letterhead, Logo. Inside Address, Date, Salutation

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III. Zip Codes and Abbreviations used in the U.S.A.

Zip codes in the U.S.A. consist of five digits. Some business addresses may

WRITING

IV. Ways of Addressing a Person in a Business Letter

Mr. Black — use when addressing any man Ms. Black — use when addressing any woman

Mrs. — use when addressing a married or a widowed woman Dr. Black — use when addressing a person having Phd degree

Dear Sir(s) or Madam/ Gentlemen — use when you do not know the name of the addressee

To avoid the use of Dear Sir or Gentlemen, which are considered outdated because they assume that all readers are men, you may use such forms as Dear Reader, Dear Colleague, etc.

Exercises

1.Practise writing superscriptions.

2.Practise writing letterheads, inside addresses, salutations.

3.Exchange your samples, study them, point out mistakes (if any). Mind the punctuation.

LESSON NINE

GRAMMAR: Parenthesis.

WORD-BUILDING: Verb-forming suffixes (Revision).

READING AND ORAL SPEECH PRACTICE: International Law and Globalization. Possibilities of Studying Abroad.

CONVERSATIONAL FORMULAS: Balancing points of view.

WRITING: Writing a Business Letter (continued).

GRAMMAR

Parenthesis

Парантез (вводные слова) служит в предложении:

а) для выражения отношения говорящего к высказыванию; б) для связи данного предложения с другими; в) для подведения итога ранее сказанного.

Парантез может выражаться:

а) модальными словами (actually, certainly, indeed, in fact, naturally, surely, perhaps, evidently, obviously, maybe, truly, decidedly, etc.);

б) наречиями (firstly, secondly, finally, then, thus, anyway, moreover, besides, still, yet, otherwise, therefore, etc.);

в) предложными фразами (in short, in a word, in truth, in my opinion, on the one hand, on the contrary, at last, etc.);

г) фразами с инфинитивом (to be sure, to begin with, to tell the truth,

etc.);

д) фразами с причастием I (generally speaking, strictly speaking, comparatively speaking, etc.).

Exercise

1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to parentheses.

1.Robbery is, perhaps, as much an attack on bodily security as on property.

2.The witness must testify only to matters of fact with which he is personally acquainted. This has two aspects. Firstly, he must testify only to facts, not to mere matters of opinion. Secondly, the witness must testify only to facts which he knows; he must not repeat what has been told him by someone else. 3. In the U.S. jurisdiction of federal and state courts somewhat overlaps. Thus, a litigant can often choose whether to sue in a state or a federal court. 4. Generally speaking, what two people agree to do, they may later agree not to do. In legal terminology this process is known as waiver. The term applies to contracts: the parties

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agree to give up their rights and responsibilities under contract. 5. Actually, the majority of oral contracts are valid, though there are some contracts that must be in writing in order to be enforceable. 6. There are two leading parties in the U.S.A. To distinguish between these parties is often difficult, however. 7. Police departments rarely patrol private locations (apartment houses, office buildings, etc.) because responsibility for such locations is a matter of private concern. Hence, there has been an expansion of private policing of private locations. 8. All prosecutions for offenses against state law in the U.S.A. are prosecuted in state courts, with some exceptions concerning offenses which involve federal activity. However, the federal courts have supervisory authority with regard to the administration of criminal justice in the state courts. 9. In “common law” countries the starting point of judicial reasoning lies in past decisions. In “civil law” countries, on the other hand, the starting point for judicial reasoning lies in principles and concepts contained in codes.

2. Read and translate the text. Point out parentheses.

STUDYING INTERNATIONAL LAW

A person doing research in Anglo-American domestic common law system normally employs some or all of the following sources of law: primary sources — constitutions; statutes (codes, compilations, session laws); administrative regulations; judicial decisions (“court reports”); administrative agency decisions; and secondary sources: legal treatises, periodical articles, annotations, looseleaf services, etc.

Comparatively speaking, such is not the case with International Law research where a researcher will use: As primary sources: treaties, conventions, and the like; international custom (“customary law”); general principles of law recognized by civilized nations; and as subsidiary sources: judicial decisions; legal treatises, periodical articles, and the like (known as “the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists”).

The difficulty, however, may come in determining what “customary law” is. International customary law is made up of two elements: (1) a certain procedure, rule, pattern of behavior, or conduct carried out over a period of time (not specified), and (2) an agreement (explicit or tacit) by nations that this procedure or conduct is obligatory as law. In short, a pattern of behavior is not sufficient to create a customary rule of international law.

Although most nations do not accept resolutions and declarations per se as sources of international law rules, a resolution or declaration may restate well established rules of international law. In that case, the resolution or declaration is simply a statement (or “restatement”) of international law. Moreover, a resolution

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or declaration may become a rule of international law through the development of customary law. If nations follow a practice or rule laid out in a declaration or resolution and gradually begin to accept it as obligatory, then that practice or rule becomes a customary rule of international law.

READING

TEXT 1

1. Read the text. Write a detailed plan of the text. Compare your plans with those of your fellow students. Choose the best one.

INTERNATIONAL LAW BASICS

One of the most prominent and urgent problems in international governance is how different branches and norms of international law interact, and what to do in the event of conflict. With no single ‘international legislator’ and a multitude of states, international organizations and tribunals making and enforcing the law, the international legal system is decentralized. This leads to a wide variety of international norms, ranging from customary international law and general principles of law, to multilateral and bilateral treaties on trade, the environment, human rights, the law of the sea, etc.

The prevalent theoretical approach to the relationship between international and municipal law is called “dualist.” It views any national legal system and the international legal system as separate and discrete entities, each with its own power to settle the effect any rule of law might have within it. Thus, international law is generally not thought to be able to make itself effective in a domestic legal order; this depends on the constitutional rules of the municipal system itself. Conversely, municipal law is thought incapable of imposing itself in the international legal system. A state ordinarily may not rely on its own domestic law as a ground for repudiating an international legal obligation.

Another theoretical approach to the relationship between international and national law is called “monist” because it views the international legal order and all national legal orders as component parts of a single “universal legal order” in which international law has a certain supremacy. Whatever the logical attractions of monism, it is not usually as reliable a guide to practice as dualism. Most states and most courts, including those in the United States, presumptively view national and international legal systems as discrete entities and routinely discuss in a dualist fashion the incorporation of rules from one system to the other.

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Sovereignty and international law are apparently antagonistic. The notion behind state sovereignty is that a state ought to be able to govern itself, free from outside interference; underpinning international law is the idea that external rules ought to be able to limit state behavior. In the real world, neither sovereignty nor international law could reign absolutely without vanquishing the other. The lesson of history seems to be that in practice neither sovereignty nor international law ever completely wins out. Rather, a balance is struck between the two, an accommodation that makes up an essential aspect of the constitution of international politics at any point in time.

International law can point to the new influence of international organizations, especially to the United Nations in the wake of the Security Council’s new activism, to the European Union poised to step to a new level of European integration and globalization, and to the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund reaching out to an increasing number of states. Judicially, there is the International Court of Justice, as well as the regional international courts, principally the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Human Rights (ICHR), which have been remarkably busy and efficacious. The prospering triangle of international courts in The Hague, Luxembourg, and Strasbourg is without precedent in the long history of international arbitration and adjudication.

The former Soviet Union/Russia signed and ratified both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, and when Russia became a member of the Council of Europe in February, 1996, the governing authorities declared that the country would fulfill all of the requirements of the ECHR so as to sign the convention and its accompanying protocol within a year. Russia also agreed to ratify the Convention within three years. Furthermore, the Russian Constitution of 1993 states that the country is a democratic federative law-governed state (Article 1) and a number of provisions have been made in which it is stated that international human rights are binding for Russian authorities. Subsequently, Article 15, Section 4 of the Russian Constitution states that recognized principles and rules of international law make up an integral part of the internal law; it also establishes that in the event of a conflict, rules of international agreement shall apply. Furthermore, the Russian Constitution guarantees human rights in accordance with recognized principles and norms of international law (Article 17) and establishes that human rights have direct force in the national law (Article 18).

Hence on these grounds Russian authorities are bound both politically and legally by the international principles of law that anyone accused of a penal offence shall be presumed innocent until proven guilty. It is also inherent in this that any reasonable doubt in a criminal case must be applied in favour of the accused. The presumption of innocence applies to individuals who are suspected of or accused of having committed a crime, and it grants citizens general protection from being

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singled out by the authorities as criminals before their guilt has been established in a court of law. Thus it may be considered a breach of the presumption of innocence when the police and the public prosecution issue statements and pronouncements that may form a basis for drawing conclusions about the guilt of the accused person. The same is true if a representative for the state publicly asserts that a person is guilty of a crime before the person’s guilt has been established by a court, cf. the statement from the Human Rights Commission of the Council of Europe in the case “Petra Krause vs. Switzerland” (1979) which addressed certain statements made by the Swiss Justice Minister during a television broadcast1.

Notes: 1 http://www.bellona.no/en/index.html

2. Give the Russian for:

prominent and urgent problem; international governance; customary international law; separate and discrete entity; international legal obligation; international legal order; external rules; influence of international organizations; European Court of Human Rights; internal law; reasonable doubt; to be proven guilty; presumption of innocence.

3. Give the English for:

отрасли и нормы международного права; демократическое правовое государство; прямое действие; общие принципы права; многосторонние и двусторонние договоры; всеобщий правовой порядок; инкорпорация норм из одной системы в другую; ограничивать поведение государства; Международный суд.

4. Complete the following sentences using the words given below each sentence (a, b or c).

1)Most states view national and international law systems as…

a)unequal, b) discreet entities, c) as branches of the national law

2)Sovereignty and international law are…

a)synonymous, b) closely connected, c) antagonistic

3)The presumption of innocence applies to…

a)ordinary citizens, b) accused or suspected, c) plaintiffs

5. Translate the following sentences. to make up

1. Farming and mining make up most of the country’s economy. 2. The committee is made up of representatives of all the universities. 3. These three articles make up the whole book.

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in favour of

1. The committee was in favour of my proposal. 2. He rejected from my proposal in favour of his.

7. Form the derivatives with the help of the following suffixes:

-ize (-ise): legal, popular, special, organ, victim, terror, economy -fy/-ify: false, null, class

-en: short, wide, long, deep

8. Speak on a) the main principles of international and national law; b) participation of Russia in the development and application of international law.

TEXT 2

1. The primary role of the international law is adoption of measures for struggle with international crime. After you read the text say:

a) what an international crime is; b) what specific features it is characterized by; c) how the international crimes are prosecuted.

INTERNATIONAL CRIME

An “international crime” is an act that is defined as criminal under international law. In most instances, this will be done through international agreements, but customary international law also plays a role. Normally, an act will initially be defined as a crime by an international agreement and then, after the agreement has been ratified by a large number of states and generally accepted even by those states who do not become parties, the act may be regarded as a crime under customary international law. If an act is defined as an international crime under customary international law, this creates an international legal obligation to refrain from the commission of the act. The classic example of this process is the 1907 Hague Convention No. IV Respecting the Laws

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and Customs of War on Land, which the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg explicitly recognized as having become customary international law, at least by 1939.

Since the most important goal of these treaties and conventions is to ensure prosecution of the accused, many of the conventions strongly state an obligation either to extradite or to submit the accused for prosecution. Under normal circumstances, it is solely up to the state where an accused is apprehended to decide whether to extradite or prosecute him. To ensure that the prosecution option is realizable, each state party is required to take such measures as may be necessary to establish its jurisdiction over the offence in cases where the alleged offender is present in its territory and it decides not to extradite him. Usually, this will require the adoption of legislation.

2. Match the international crimes and their definitions.

1.Memorize the following words. award — (присужденная) награда loan — заём

overdraft — превышение кредита

2.Read and the following international words and give their Russian equivalents. sponsor, total, realistic, resident, permanent resources, to contribute,

athlete, to accelerate

3. Analyze the structure and meanings of the following words.

scholarship, first-year, need-based, post-graduate, grant-based, handful, mid-year, co-signer, repay, part-time, college-level, A-level, post-secondary

4. Give the Russian for.

to assess personal funds, identify financial assistance, to reduce educational costs, family sources, living costs, academic records, international students, local government, realistic expectations, bachelor’s degrees, financial assistants, permanent residents, liberal arts colleges, annual costs, top student, employer’s letter, 20 hours per week, resident assistant, international student advisor, British Council

5. Nowadays many students of Russia have an opportunity to get or continue their education in some other countries. As you study the English language the following information on possibilities of studying in the UK and the US will be of great importance for you. Read the following text and make a plan including all the necessary steps for you to get a chance to study in the UK or the US.

EDUCATION FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS

IN THE UK AND THE US

It is important to start your financial planning at least 12 months before you intend to study in the United States. Financing your college education consists

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of: compiling effective applications; assessing personal funds; identifying financial assistance for which you are eligible; reducing educational costs.

At first you are to consult your parents and other family sponsors to find out how much money they can commit each year to your education. Try to raise as much as you can from family sources.

All types of scholarships and financial aid for international students are highly competitive and require excellent academic records. You will often find the terms “scholarships” and “financial aid” used interchangeably, but technically speaking, a scholarship is a financial award based on merit, including outstanding academic performance, special talent in sports or performing arts, or perhaps community service or leadership. Financial aid is a “need-based” grant based on the student’s financial need, as documented by family income, assets, and other factors. Below are the main types of financial assistance available for international students who want to study in the United States:

Home Country Funds: You can conduct research at home to find possible funding from local government, corporate, or foundation sources. Although these sources are not found in all countries, you could reduce your educational cost with scholarships from local organizations.

Funding From Colleges: Meet with an educational adviser to learn how to research available financial aid for international students. Careful advance research and realistic expectations are more likely to result in success. Do not assume that all colleges award financial aid. In fact, less than half of the institutions offering bachelor’s degrees can provide financial assistance to students who are not citizens or permanent residents of the United States. Keep in mind that financial aid for U.S. students is separate from financial aid for international students. Be sure to tell the admissions office your country of citizenship and request information on financial aid available to non-U.S. citizens. If offered, financial aid is usually made up of a number of different types of assistance, including grants and scholarships and occasionally loans or part-time work programs.

You will discover that financial aid is very rare at state, or public, colleges and at colleges that offer professional courses such as engineering, business administration, and health professions. More financial aid may be available from the private liberal arts colleges, which offer the arts and science subjects.

As you do your research, make a table listing the colleges you would like to attend. Write down annual costs, then enter the average financial aid award and the number of awards made by each of the colleges. Such information is available from resources in your information or advising center.

International students often ask advisers about full scholarships, which cover all the costs of education except for airfare. The total number of full scholarships available each year to incoming international students in the United States is

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about 1,000, offered by only about 100 colleges. To get a full scholarship, you must be one of the top students in your country, usually with “A’s” (excellent) in almost every subject, high SAT (the SAT Test is required for those wishing to enter a Bachelors’ degree program or other first university program in the United States) and TOEFL scores, and distinguished performance in other areas such as leadership and community service. There are 20 top students from all over the world competing for each scholarship, so you must distinguish yourself among a pool of outstanding students.

International Awards: International students also ask about financial assistance from foundations, organizations, and the U.S. government. Very little aid exists through such sources, and it is usually earmarked for advanced graduate students.

Loans: In limited instances, you may be able to negotiate a loan to fund part of your educational costs. Your educational adviser may have information on loan programs for which you may be eligible. You must usually have a U.S. citizen co-signer to act as a guarantor for any loans from U.S. loan programs, and in most cases you must already be enrolled in a U.S. university before you apply. Before taking a loan, make certain you know how you are going to repay it, and how a loan will affect your plans for graduate or other further study and for returning home.

Employment: Current immigration regulations permit international students to work only part-time — up to 20 hours per week — and only on campus during their first year of study. By working 10 to 15 hours a week, you could earn enough to pay for incidentals such as books, clothing, and personal expenses, but your campus job cannot pay your major expenses, such as tuition or room and board. This income also cannot be used as a source of income for any official financial statements. Campus jobs may include working at the university cafeteria, bookstore, library, or health club, or within the university’s administrative offices.

After the first year, you can also apply for employment as a resident assistant (RA) in a university dormitory. RAs serve as the first point of contact for students needing assistance or who have queries regarding dorm life. In return, RAs receive free accommodation and sometimes a small salary and/or meal plan.

Under current regulations, after your first year of study, you may apply to the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) for permission to work off campus for up to 20 hours a week. You should note, however, that there is no guarantee that this request will be granted. You should always check with your international student adviser before considering any form of employment.

When planning your finances, consider these ways to reduce your costs: Best Buys: Look for the colleges that offer you the highest quality education

at the lowest cost.

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•Accelerated Programs: Completing a four-year bachelor’s degree in three years saves thousands of dollars.

Tuition Waivers: Based on your first-year grades, some colleges award partial tuition waivers. A superior academic record could save you thousands of dollars.

Living Expenses: Becoming a resident assistant in a dormitory could save thousands of dollars in living costs. Working in the dining hall offers a modest salary plus “all you can eat” meals. Living off campus with a relative or friend saves money if suitable accommodation is available and public transport is efficient.

Two-year and Community Colleges: Many students save thousands of dollars in tuition by attending community colleges for their first two years and then transferring to four-year institutions to complete their degree1.

Finding funds for studying in a UK university or college

It is always best to get independent advice from trained and experienced advisers.

1. You should first look at the information on the British Council site & UCAS (Universities & Colleges Admission Service):

As well as a range of information about education & the UK, there are sections on:

•Sources of Funding for International Students — useful database of scholarships & grants for international (overseas) students wanting to study in the UK.

•Living in the UK — including information on finance, finding somewhere to live, health care, bringing a family & student support.

•Working in the UK if you are an international student — information from the British Council.

UCAS & the Independent newspaper have useful online guides to studying in the UK.

•Studying in the UK — includes information on teaching methods, living in the UK, improving your English, applying to universities, passport & visas, costs of studying & living, issues for mature students, where to get help & case studies.

•UCAS — a guide for international students on applying to undergraduate courses, including a section for parents & a section on English language courses.

2. For information on choosing the best course & individual advice on funding

&scholarships for study in the UK:

•Contact your nearest British Council office, or UKCOSA (The Council for International Education) through their website, by telephone or by email. You should also contact your own Ministry of Education or government Education Department, as they should have details of scholarship opportunities for students wishing to study overseas. They will also be able to advise you on your own government's conditions for studying abroad.

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3. Recognition of your qualifications:

•If you would like to check if your qualifications and educational certificates are acceptable to colleges, universities or professional bodies, contact a NARIC or ENIC (National Academic Recognition & Information Centre) or similar organization in your own country or in the country you wish to work or study in.

•Your chosen college or university can also check your qualifications and certificates for you but you may be asked to send them the original certificates or diplomas.

Europe Open for Professions provides information about the recognition of vocational & professional qualifications across Europe

4. Applying to a UK university or college:

Some universities may accept applications from international students directly and may have special offers relating to fees and other expenses. You will need to contact your chosen universities directly.

5. For information about Further Education, English courses and adult & community education:

•The British Council and each college will help with advice on courses, finance and visas. Further Education (FE) colleges provide courses to study for General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), A-levels, GNVQ (The General National Vocational Qualification), English language, a range of vocational qualifications and some also provide Higher Education programmes, including Higher National Diplomas and degrees.

6. You may be able to negotiate a loan or overdraft from a bank or building society:

It is unlikely you will be able to get enough to cover all your study and living expenses. Each bank has different criteria for agreeing loans and it will also depend upon your own situation. For more information, contact the banks and building societies directly2.

Notes: 1 http://educationusa.state.gov/undergrad/aid/finance.htm 2 http://www.support4learning.org.uk/money/funds_internat.htm

ORAL SPEECH PRACTICE

I.Mind Your Grammar When You Speak

1.Answer the questions according to the model.

Model. A: Why didn’t you come to the institute yesterday?

B: To tell the truth, I cut my lessons.

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2. Respond to the statements as in the model.

Model. A: He didn’t want to come. B: Yet, he did come.

Prompts: to do it, to fail you, to start the discussion, to remind them of their duty, to meet with customers on Friday, to miss that chance

3. Express supposition.

Model. A: He didn’t come to the lecture.

II. Conversational Formulas

Balancing Points of View

Exercises

1. Read the following flashes of conversation.

1.

A:I think he is right saying that this problem is difficult to solve.

B:Yes, but, on the other hand, it is too important to be neglected.

A:Oh, yes.

2.

A:I think this case should be considered in accordance with the international law norms.

B:I’m not sure really.

2. Working in groups of two or three, discuss the following statements.

1)Legal research work is much more interesting than legal practice.

2)Men make better lawyers than women.

3)Terminological differences existing in various legal systems present little difficulty for an experienced scholar.

III. Polylogue

Look through some of the following sources of information on possible ways of financing your study abroad. Exchange useful information with your fellow-students in the form of a polylogue.

•British Council — Sources of funding for international students — including scholarship information [http://www.britishcouncil.org/education/ funding/index.htm]

•Ford Foundation — small number of grants to individuals [http://www. fordfound.org/]

•Foundation Center Online — information & research on US grants [http://fdncenter.org]

•Fulbright Commission US — UK — advice & guidance for UK & US people wishing to study in the UK or US , including awards & scholarships, short courses, admission test information, US study programmes in the UK, work

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experience, professional licensing issues & useful links to other information sites [http://www.fulbright.co.uk]

• GradFund — key site with searchable database on sources of funding for Postgraduate Studies in the UK for UK & international applicants [http://www. ncl.ac.uk/services/finance/gradfund]

The Soros Foundation Network supports the development of an open society through funding specific educational opportunities around the world [http:// www.soros.org]

InternationalScholarships.com is an online financial aid resource for international students wishing to study in a foreign country. You will find a comprehensive listing of grants, scholarships, loan programs, and other information to assist college and university students in their pursuit to study abroad [http:// www.internationalscolarships.com]

The National Collegiate Athletic Association's official web site provides details of limited scholarships available for outstanding student athletes [http:// www.ncaa.org].

IV. Topics for Discussion

1. Speak on the following problems.

1)Euro: single currency for the whole world.

2)Pros and cons of globalization.

3)The role of English for law students.

2.Look through the sites of the most famous international organization. Choose one of them for several members of your class. Make a presentation including data on the main principles of work and role in the world community.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (http://www.iso.ch/) World Trade Organization (WTO) (http://www.wto.org/)

International Monetary Fund (IMF) (http://www.imf.org/) Council of Europe (http://www.coe.int/)

European Union (EU) (http://europa.eu.int/)

European Court of Justice and Court of First Instance (http://europa. eu.int/cj/index.htm)

European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) (http:// www.ebrd.com/)

3.Discuss the degree of danger of the following international crimes.

Aggression

Unlawful Use of Weapons

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Genocide

Apartheid

Slavery and Related Crimes Unlawful Human Experimentation Piracy

Aircraft Hijacking and Sabotage of Aircrafts

Threat and Use of Force Against Internationally Protected Persons Taking of Civilian Hostages

Drug Offenses

International Traffic in Obscene Publications Destruction and/or Theft of National Treasures Theft of Nuclear Materials

Interference with Submarine Cables Falsification and Counterfeiting Bribery of Foreign Public Officials

WRITING

Writing a Business Letter (continued)

1. The Structure of a Business Letter

1.Logo/or letterhead.

2.Inside address.

3.Salutation.

4.Body paragraph(s).

5.Closing phrases.

6.Signature.

1.1.Body paragraphs usually include:

a)An opening sentence;

b)Statement of Purpose;

c)Statement of action;

d)Polite expressions.

1.1.1.An Opening Paragraph Tell the addressee why you write the letter.

1.1.2.Statement of Purpose

a)Providing information;

b)Requesting information;

c)Making an offer;

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