3. The literature of the 15th century. Robin Hood Ballads

The printing press was set up in England in 1476 by William Caxton. He was the first writer and translator, he liked to translate stories for his own pleasure. Caxton printed many important books and helped to standardize the English language. Literature was written in Latin, Norman-French, and English because languages were used by different social groups. Latin was the language of the Church, French was used by the nobility, and English was spoken by common people.

Major works of this period include Chaucer’s «Canterbury Tales» and Malory’s «Le Morte d’Arthur».

Folklore developed more rapidly because it was closer to the people and reflected their everyday life. It was spread orally and didn’t require education. The most common genres were ballads, folk songs, romances, fables, and fabliau. The word «romance» comes from the Old French word meaning in «a roman language». Romances were popular because they told exciting stories about knights, love, and adventures. They usually described heroic deeds and courtly love. A fable is a short moral story, often with animals as characters. A fabliau is a humorous and sometimes rude story about everyday life. Fabliaux were usually comic and satirical. The word «ballad» comes from the French word «to dance».

Ballads were divided into historical, heroic, romantic, supernatural and lyrical groups. The origins of most ballads are controversial because they weren’t written down at first. They were passer orally from generation to generation, that’s why many versions of the same ballad exist. Death was a common theme because life in the Middle Ages was hard and dangerous. A refrain and repetition made a ballad eaisier to remember and sing. They created rhythm and emotional effect. They also emphasized the main idea of the story.

One of the most famous cycles of English ballads is about Robin Hood. According to the legends, he lived in about the second half of the 12^th century. According to the tales, he and his band of “Merry Men” stole from the rich and gave to the poor, fighting against injustice and oppression. He had loyal companions Little John, Friar Tuck, and Will Scarlet. Robin Hood was described as a brave and clever man who never robbed the poor and always helped ordinary people.

4. The Literature of the 16th century. The Renaissance. William Shakespeare

The word «Renaissance» means «rebirth» in French. It refers to the rebirth of interest in classical culture, science, art, and literature. Renaissance philosophy emphasized human potential, individual achievement, and intellectual freedom.

The English Renaissance was a cultural and literary movement that took place approximately from the late 15th century to the early 17th century. It was a period of great intellectual and artistic development in England. The Renaissance was influenced by the ideas of humanism, which emphasized the value of human life, education, and classical culture. Scholars rediscovered the literature, philosophy, and art of Ancient Greece and Rome. During the Renaissance several important monarchs ruled England. Among them were Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. The reign of Elizabeth I was especially important for English culture and literature. This time is often called the Elizabethan Age. Queen Elizabeth supported education, theatre, and the arts, which helped literature and drama flourish. One of the most famous writers of this period was William Shakespeare. He was born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon and died in 1616. Shakespeare was the son of a glove-maker and probably studied at the local grammar school, where he learned Latin literature and classical authors. Later he moved to London and became an actor, playwright, and shareholder of a theatre company known as the Lord Chamberlain’s Men. Shakespeare’s creative work is usually divided into three periods. In the first period he mainly wrote comedies and historical plays. In the second period he created his greatest tragedies. The third period includes his late romances or tragicomedies. Among Shakespeare’s most famous comedies are A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Twelfth Night, As You Like It, and The Merchant of Venice. These plays usually include elements such as love stories, misunderstandings, disguises, and happy endings. They often take place in imaginative settings and contain humorous characters and witty dialogue. Shakespeare’s greatest tragedies include Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. These plays explore deep psychological conflicts and tragic human flaws such as ambition, jealousy, and betrayal. The plots often focus on the fall of a great hero whose weaknesses lead to his destruction. In his final period Shakespeare wrote plays such as The Tempest, The Winter’s Tale, and Cymbeline. These works differ from his earlier tragedies because they combine tragic events with reconciliation and forgiveness. They often have magical elements and end with harmony and restoration. Another important part of Shakespeare’s творчество is his sonnets. Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets which explore themes of love, beauty, time, and mortality. They are usually divided into two groups: the sonnets addressed to a young man and the sonnets addressed to the mysterious “Dark Lady.” Through these poems Shakespeare reflects on the power of love and the passing of time. The Renaissance was also a time of other great writers. One of them was Christopher Marlowe, a famous dramatist and contemporary of Shakespeare. Marlowe often focused on ambitious heroes who desire power and knowledge. His most famous play is Doctor Faustus, which tells the story of a scholar who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and magical power. The Renaissance produced many outstanding figures not only in literature but also in science and art. In Italy there were Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. In science important figures included Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei. Their discoveries changed people’s understanding of the world.