Ординатура / Офтальмология / Английские материалы / Ultrasonography of the Eye and Orbit 2nd edition_Coleman, Silverman, Lizzi_2006
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(65 + 50), respectively. (The PRK over the flap would not have removed some tissue from the nasal stromal component of the flap because it was a positive cylinder ablation.)
The asymmetric flap thickness, with an RST below 250 µm in the nasal portion of the cornea may explain why this patient's cornea was behaving unpredictably on repeated enhancements. We have shown that significant and measurable biomechanical changes occur in the cornea after LASIK, with a residual stromal thickness below 290 µm (26,27), and this asymmetric RST bed may be responsible for unpredicted biomechanical shifts, as evidenced by the serial back surface Orbscan exams shown in Figure 4.16.
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Figure 4.17. Three-dimensional pachymetric mapping of the residual stromal layer under the flap and the stromal component of the flap (i.e., excluding epithelium) created with a nasal hinge with the Moria LSK-One using the 130-head. The central thickness of the stromal component of the flap is 65 µm, corresponding to an original flap thickness of approximately 115 µm (65+50). However, 2-mm nasal to the center of the flap the stromal component thickness was 139 µm, corresponding to an original flap thickness of 189 µm (139+50). This nasal increased thickness was responsible for an unpredictably low residual stromal thickness (above), which led initially to an unpredicted increase in cylinder in the horizontal plane and subsequent unpredicted biomechanically based refractive shifts on repeated enhancement surgery. (see color image)
Had VHF digital ultrasound scanning been performed before the first enhancement, it would have been evident that the RST was already below 250 µm nasal to the center after the first treatment. This may have alerted the surgeon to not lift the original flap and remove further tissue from under it, and may have avoided the eventual induction of biomechanically mediated asymmetric astigmatism with monocular diplopia.
In another example, a 33-year-old woman underwent simultaneous bilateral LASIK (OS first, OD second) for -6.00 - 0.50 × 115 (20/15) OD and -6.00 - 0.50 × 20 (20/15) OS. Treatment was carried out with the Hansatome 160-µm head and the MEL70 excimer laser, with ablation depths of 99 µm for each eye (6.5-mm fully corrected optical zone). Preoperative Orbscan thicknesses were 542 µm OD and 540 µm OS, yielding predicted RST of 283 µm OD and 281 µm OS. One month UCVA was 20/15 -2 in both eyes. Refractions were plano -0.50 × 125 OD and -0.50 D OS 9 months postoperative; UCVA was 20/25 OD and 20/30 OS; refraction was -0.50 - 0.50 × 150 (20/15) OD and -0.75 - 0.25 × 145 (20/15) OS. As per enhancement protocol in our practice, she underwent Artemis scanning for determination of the RST before enhancement. RST maps for right and left eyes are shown in Figure 4.18. The minimum RST was 278 µm OD and 221 µm OS. Central thickness of the stromal component of the flap was 85 µm OD and 135 µm OS, corresponding to original flap thicknesses of 135 µm OD and 185 µm OS. We reported VHF digital ultrasound pachymetric mapping of Hansatome flaps created bilaterally using the same blade. The mean (± SD) central thickness for first eyes was 139 (± 21.3) µm and for second eyes was 122 (± 22.4) µm. Second flaps were statistically significantly thinner than first flaps (32). Therefore, it is not surprising that the right flap was thinner than the left. However, the left (first) flap was approximately 15 µm thicker than expected (185 versus 160). Because the RST was 60 µm thinner than expected, it can be concluded that the Orbscan preoperatively overestimated corneal thickness by approximately 45 µm (originally predicted RST - flap thickness over 160 - RST achieved = 281 - 15 - 221). Therefore, in this case, RST monitoring by direct measurement before what appeared to be a relatively benign enhancement, with adequate tissue reserve, resulted in removing excess tissue from the bed of a cornea already biomechanically compromised with an RST of 221 µm. Had ablation been carried out for the enhancement under the flap, assuming a residual of 283 µm as predicted, ablation in a 7-mm zone of 20 µm would have reduced the RST to approximately 201 µm, with the surgeon assuming that there was still 263 µm of RST. Conceivably, this would have led to further biomechanical change and a myopic shift (26), possibly a second enhancement and the risk of inducing ectasia (30), with the surgeon believing that more than 250 µm were being left under the original flap. In fact, many current publications on biomechanical changes and ectasia in the cornea after LASIK are based on the predicted value for the RST based on preoperative parameters (33, 34, 35). Our mathematical modeling using VHF digital ultrasound-based direct measurement of the RST led us to determine that ectasia probably occurs, on the average, at an RST of 180 µm (30). We have studied the relative predictability of the RST in LASIK and found that with modern pachymetry (Orbscan and handheld ultrasound
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pachymetry), microkeratomes, and laser ablation depths, the RST can be predicted within a standard deviation of 30 µm (36) and hence a range of approximately ± 45 µm (95% confidence interval). Therefore, it appears prudent to stay within the Barraquer rule of aiming to leave 250 µm under a lamellar flap (31) to avoid breaching this 180-µm limit.
Figure 4.18. Three-dimensional residual stromal thickness maps of the right and left eyes of a patient who underwent routine LASIK with predicted residual stromal thicknesses of 283 µm OD and 281 µm OS. As seen here, the thinnest points of the residual stromal beds were 278 µm and 221 µm on the right and left, respectively, perhaps accounting for a slightly greater myopic undercorrection on the left as a result of a biomechanical corneal shift. The determination of this low residual stromal thickness on routine Artemis scanning prevented the removal of a further 20 µm, which would have resulted in an RST of 201 µm and probably a high risk of developing ectasia. Artemis scanning for verification of residual stromal thickness is a powerful tool for increasing the safety of enhancement surgery. (see color image)
Given our experience in the subject, our current thinking is that ectasia will occur if either less than 200 µm are left under the flap or LASIK is performed in a cornea with undiagnosed keratoconus. Therefore, accurate biometry before LASIK, after LASIK, and before enhancement, as well as cross-interpretation with Orbscan front and back surface shape evaluation, should protect corneas from ectasia, with the exception of those that harbor undiagnosed (or unexpressed) keratoconus.
A NOTE ON PHAKIC INTRAOCULAR LENS SURGERY
No phakic intraocular lenses (IOLs) are currently approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and this is almost certainly contingent (for angle supported and posterior chamber lenses) on the lack of adequate preoperative internal ocular biometry in surgical planning. Maximizing the safety of phakic IOLs is the honorous responsibility of surgeons who expect these devices to remain in normal eyes for several decades without causing serious side effects.
One of the most unique contributions to ophthalmology by very-high-frequency ultrasound is in the sizing of intraocular lenses (IOLs), particularly phakic IOLs. Incorrect lens sizing or positioning can lead to long-term complications. One of the main safety hurdles encountered in anterior chamber, angle-supported phakic IOLs implantation has been defining the correct amount of haptic force in the angle; if the haptic diameter is too large, this can lead to ischemia of the iris, causing iris stromal scarring and pupil ovalization. If too small, the lens may become displaced in the anterior chamber, risking endothelial damage or decrease the ability to correct astigmatism with toric lenses. Issues relating to the sizing of posterior chamber lenses also exist. If the vault of such a lens in the posterior chamber is too large, it can lead to narrowing of the anterior chamber angle; it can also increase the chances of pigment dispersion from the pigment epithelium of the iris, with subsequent glaucomatous consequences. If the posterior chamber phakic IOL is too small, excessive contact between it and the crystalline lens may decrease aqueous flow and lens nutrition, as well as directly traumatize the lens surface, leading to cataract.
By providing accurate sulcus-to-sulcus and angle-to-angle measurements, the arc scan has the potential to increase the safety of both anterior and posterior chamber phakic IOLs by improving the accuracy of lens sizing, a crucial issue for long-term safety of these devices (Figure 4.19). Until recently, surgeons have been using the external white-to-white measurement to estimate the internal or sulcus-to-sulcus or angle-to-angle diameters
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(37,38). A recent study revealed either no or insufficient statistical correlation between the external ocular measurements (including white-to-white) and the internal angle-to-angle or sulcus-to-sulcus measurements of the eye, even if other conventional measurements (such as sphere, axial length, anterior chamber depth) were included (7). This means that the only alternative for ensuring the greatest sizing safety in phakic IOL surgery will be to determine angle-to-angle and sulcus-to-sulcus dimensions by direct measurement. Arc scan is the only technology available, at present, that can provide both these measurements directly, in 3-D, and under direct visualization for positional confirmation of the location from where measurement is taken. Without this feature, it would be relatively easy to measure internal ocular dimensions in the wrong plane (Figure 4.20).
Figure 4.19. Full anterior segment horizontal VHF digital ultrasound B-scan encompassing a 15-mm wide sector. The anterior retina can also be seen within this scan plane. The angle-to-angle and sulcus-to-sulcus diameters are easily measured directly. Anterior chamber and posterior chamber volumes and dimensions can be studied before insertion of phakic IOLs to predict the separation of such implants from the endothelium of the cornea, or the crystalline lens. Predictive effects on the angle as a result of posterior chamber phakic IOLs could also be made prospectively to improve patient safety.
Figure 4.20. Screen capture from the Artemis during an anterior segment patient exam for direct measurement of the sulcus-to-sulcus. Real-time horizontal B-scans are displayed on the upper right panel of the screen. The infrared simultaneous video image shows that the position of the horizontal scanning plane is not central or axial. The zoom window (Z) of the B-scan shows a cross-sectional anterior segment representation containing pupil borders (P) that, in the absence of positional information, could have been interpreted as an axial scan, producing a false-low sulcus-to-sulcus diameter. Similarly, the angle-to-angle would have been underestimated falsely. Simultaneous video control is paramount for maximizing the safety of phakic IOL sizing, because improper localization will lead to erroneous biometry and the potential for the oversizing of phakic IOLs. (see color image)
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Improving the safety of phakic IOLs by accurate anatomic surgical planning and postoperative monitoring could position phakic IOLs as a real alternative treatment for correcting lower refractive errors where, currently, extraocular corneal refractive surgery is the first-line approach.
CONCLUSION
Orthopaedic surgery was practiced without preoperative and postoperative anatomic imaging until the discovery of x-ray imaging in 1895, by Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen. Perhaps layer-by-layer anatomic imaging and biometry of the cornea and anterior segment will have a similar impact on refractive surgery.
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Authors: Coleman, D. Jackson; Silverman, Ronald H.; Lizzi, Frederic L.; Lloyd, Harriet; Rondeau, Mark J.; Reinstein, Dan Z.; Daly, Suzanne W. Title: Ultrasonography of the Eye and Orbit, 2nd Edition
Copyright ©2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
> Table of Contents > 5 - Orbital Diagnosis
5
Orbital Diagnosis
Evaluation of the orbit with ultrasound is part of a continuum of imaging techniques whose other primary components are magnetic resonance (MR), computed tomography (CT), and routine x-rays. In the hands of the skilled practitioner, orbital ultrasound using multiple frequencies (including 20-MHz B-scan of the optic nerve) and color Doppler imaging can provide most, if not all, diagnostic information available with other imaging techniques and may also be complementary to other imaging modalities. For reasons as diverse as reimbursement rates and the relative steepness of the learning curve with ultrasound, the bulk of orbital imaging is now performed with readily accessible CT and MR (Figures 5.1 and 5.2).
Even so, ultrasound remains a highly useful adjunct, and its strength within the diagnostic methodology is a result of its cost-effectiveness and ease of repeatability. The higher spatial resolution of ultrasound is also particularly sensitive to detecting early and low grade inflammatory changes in the sclera, optic nerve, and extraocular muscles. Ultrasound complements MR for monitoring treatment of Graves disease as well as imaging periocular drug delivery. Cone occupying lesions, such as hemangiomas and lymphangiomas, can be imaged and diagnosed with ultrasound as well (Figure 5.3). But most extraocular tumors, such as meningiomas or other solid tumors, are best imaged with MR. MR imaging of the orbit is optimal, if it includes the use of an appropriate surface coil, thin slices, contrast, and fat suppression.
Metallic or questionable orbital foreign bodies are best detected with routine x-rays or helical CT (e.g., presence of metallic fragments, such as shotgun pellets, to determine the number of foreign bodies [Figure 5.4] or unusual metal objects, such as nails [Figure 5.5], paper clips [Figure 5.6], or aerials [Figure 5.7]) because MR should not be used when any possibility of ferrous foreign body exists. CT should be limited because of radiation hazards in children and young adults.
Ultrasound is useful in detecting low density foreign bodies, such as wood or some plastics in the proximal orbit, particularly if they are surrounded by exudates.
Color flow Doppler ultrasound remains in limited use by ophthalmologists outside of the hospital setting, where higher frequency small parts probes for general radiology ultrasound units are available, and the test may be reimbursable through the radiology department. Flow studies are, however, helpful in quantifying blood flow in the optic nerve and in differentiating suspicious masses by flow characteristics.
All imaging techniques continue to improve with increasing computer power and other technologic advances, particularly in ultrasound, where higher frequency systems and digital analytic techniques permit improved higher resolution imaging of the posterior sclera and the optic nerve.
This chapter will describe ultrasonic examination methods and present a perspective in the complementary use of ultrasound and other imaging methods for orbital evaluation.
TECHNIQUES
Ultrasound aids in the diagnosis of orbital abnormalities by providing information that may not be obtainable by any other examination technique and is noninvasive and easy to perform in a serial manner. As discussed in Chapter 3, we prefer to use combined A- , B- , and M-scan ultrasonic techniques for evaluation of both the globe and orbit. A water-bath standoff with the lids open permits maximum penetration of sound into the orbit.
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Figure 5.1 A surface-coil T1-weighted image of an orbit and surrounding tissue shows excellent demonstration
of the globe, nerve, orbital muscles, and orbital fat.
In orbital diagnosis, the topographic outlining capabilities of the B-scan are used for localizing and delineating abnormalities. In our combined technique, after initial localization with B-scan has been achieved, we use the A-scan for tissue evaluation and use A- or M-scan for determination of the pulsatile vascular properties of tissues. Orientation difficulties (as a result of the lack of distinctive anatomic landmarks in the orbit) preclude total reliance on an A-scan-only method. Byrne and Green (1) and DiBernardo and Schachat (2) have provided excellent and comprehensive reviews of
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A-scan and combined A-scan/B-scan methods for evaluating the orbit. Their techniques, following concepts by Ossoinig (3), place greater emphasis on the A-scan than do our techniques.
Figure 5.2 A CT scan of an orbit with a foreign body, demonstrating its use for suspected foreign bodies and its
excellent delineation of bone.
Figure 5.3 A 10-MHz A- and B-scan ultrasonogram of a globe and orbit showing the well-encapsulated lesion.
A-scan shows internal acoustic reflections of a typical hemangioma.