- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •Contributors
- •Contents
- •1. Epidemiology of Pediatric Strabismus
- •1.1 Introduction
- •1.2 Forms of Pediatric Strabismus
- •1.2.1 Esodeviations
- •1.2.1.1 Congenital Esotropia
- •1.2.1.2 Accommodative Esotropia
- •1.2.1.3 Acquired Nonaccommodative Esotropia
- •1.2.1.4 Abnormal Central Nervous System Esotropia
- •1.2.1.5 Sensory Esotropia
- •1.2.2 Exodeviations
- •1.2.2.1 Intermittent Exotropia
- •1.2.2.2 Congenital Exotropia
- •1.2.2.4 Abnormal Central Nervous System Exotropia
- •1.2.2.5 Sensory Exotropia
- •1.2.3 Hyperdeviations
- •1.3 Strabismus and Associated Conditions
- •1.4.1 Changes in Strabismus Prevalence
- •1.4.2 Changes in Strabismus Surgery Rates
- •1.5 Worldwide Incidence and Prevalence of Childhood Strabismus
- •1.6 Incidence of Adult Strabismus
- •References
- •2.1 Binocular Alignment System
- •2.1.2 Vergence Adaptation
- •2.1.3 Muscle Length Adaptation
- •2.2 Modeling the Binocular Alignment Control System
- •2.2.1 Breakdown of the Binocular Alignment Control System
- •2.2.4 Changes in Basic Muscle Length
- •2.2.6 Evidence Against the “Final Common Pathway”
- •2.3 Changes in Strabismus
- •2.3.1 Diagnostic Occlusion: And the Hazard of Prolonged Occlusion
- •2.3.2.1 Supporting Evidence for Bilateral Feedback Control of Muscle Lengths
- •2.4 Applications of Bilateral Feedback Control to Clinical Practice and to Future Research
- •References
- •3.1 Dissociated Eye Movements
- •3.2 Tonus and its relationship to infantile esotropia
- •3.5 Pathogenetic Role of Dissociated Eye Movements in Infantile Esotropia
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2.1 Binocular Correspondence: Anomalous, Normal, or Both?
- •4.3 MFS with Manifest Strabismus
- •4.3.1 Esotropia is the Most Common Form of MFS
- •4.3.2 Esotropia Allows for Better Binocular Vision
- •4.3.3 Esotropia is the Most Stable Form
- •4.4 Repairing and Producing MFS
- •4.4.1 Animal Models for the Study of MFS
- •References
- •5.1 Esotropia as the Major Type of Developmental Strabismus
- •5.1.2 Early Cerebral Damage as the Major Risk Factor
- •5.1.3 Cytotoxic Insults to Cerebral Fibers
- •5.1.5 Development of Binocular Visuomotor Behavior in Normal Infants
- •5.1.6 Development of Sensorial Fusion and Stereopsis
- •5.1.7 Development of Fusional Vergence and an Innate Convergence Bias
- •5.1.8 Development of Motion Sensitivity and Conjugate Eye Tracking (Pursuit/OKN)
- •5.1.9 Development and Maldevelopment of Cortical Binocular Connections
- •5.1.10 Binocular Connections Join Monocular Compartments Within Area V1 (Striate Cortex)
- •5.1.11 Too Few Cortical Binocular Connections in Strabismic Primate
- •5.1.12 Projections from Striate Cortex (Area V1) to Extrastriate Cortex (Areas MT/MST)
- •5.1.15 Persistent Nasalward Visuomotor Biases in Strabismic Primate
- •5.1.16 Repair of Strabismic Human Infants: The Historical Controversy
- •5.1.18 Timely Restoraion of Correlated Binocular Input: The Key to Repair
- •References
- •6. Neuroanatomical Strabismus
- •6.1 General Etiologies of Strabismus
- •6.2 Extraocular Myopathy
- •6.2.1 Primary EOM Myopathy
- •6.2.2 Immune Myopathy
- •6.2.4 Neoplastic Myositis
- •6.2.5 Traumatic Myopathy
- •6.3 Congenital Pulley Heterotopy
- •6.4 Acquired Pulley Heterotopy
- •6.5 “Divergence Paralysis” Esotropia
- •6.5.1 Vertical Strabismus Due to Sagging Eye Syndrome
- •6.5.2 Postsurgical and Traumatic Pulley Heterotopy
- •6.5.3 Axial High Myopia
- •6.6 Congenital Peripheral Neuropathy: The Congenital Cranial Dysinnervation Disorders (CCDDs)
- •6.6.1 Congenital Oculomotor (CN3) Palsy
- •6.6.3 Congenital Trochlear (CN4) Palsy
- •6.6.4 Duane’s Retraction Syndrome (DRS)
- •6.6.5 Moebius Syndrome
- •6.7 Acquired Motor Neuropathy
- •6.7.1 Oculomotor Palsy
- •6.7.2 Trochlear Palsy
- •6.7.3 Abducens Palsy
- •6.7.4 Inferior Oblique (IO) Palsy
- •6.8 Central Abnormalities of Vergence and Gaze
- •6.8.1 Developmental Esotropia and Exotropia
- •6.8.2 Cerebellar Disease
- •6.8.3 Horizontal Gaze Palsy and Progressive Scoliosis
- •References
- •7.1 Congenital Cranial Dysinnervation Disorders: Facts About Ocular Motility Disorders
- •7.1.1 The Concept of CCDDs: Ocular Motility Disorders as Neurodevelopmental Defects
- •7.1.1.1 Brainstem and Cranial Nerve Development
- •7.1.1.2 Single Disorders Representing CCDDs
- •7.1.1.3 Disorders Understood as CCDDs
- •7.2 Congenital Cranial Dysinnervation Disorders: Perspectives to Understand Ocular Motility Disorders
- •7.2.1.1 Brown Syndrome
- •Motility Findings
- •Saccadic Eye Movements
- •Comorbidity
- •Epidemiologic Features
- •Laterality
- •Sex Distribution
- •Incidence
- •Heredity
- •Potential Induction of the Syndrome
- •Radiologic Findings
- •Natural Course in Brown Syndrome
- •Intra-and Postoperative Findings
- •References
- •8.1 Amblyopia
- •8.2 What Is Screening?
- •8.2.1 Screening for Amblyopia, Strabismus, and/or Refractive Errors
- •8.2.1.1 Screening for Amblyopia
- •8.2.1.2 Screening for Strabismus
- •8.2.1.3 Screening for Refractive Error
- •8.2.1.4 Screening for Other Ocular Conditions
- •8.3 Screening Tests for Amblyopia, Strabismus, and/or Refractive Error
- •8.3.1 Vision Tests
- •8.3.3 Stereoacuity
- •8.3.4 Photoscreening and/or Autorefraction
- •8.3.6 Who Should Administer the Screening Program?
- •8.4 Treatment of Amblyopia
- •8.4.1 Type of Treatment
- •8.4.2 Refractive Adaptation
- •8.4.3 Conventional Occlusion
- •8.4.4 Pharmacological Occlusion
- •8.4.5 Optical Penalization
- •8.4.7 Treatment Compliance
- •8.4.8 Other Treatment Options for Amblyopia
- •8.4.9 Recurrence of Amblyopia Following Therapy
- •8.5 Quality of Life
- •8.5.1 The Impact of Amblyopia Upon HRQoL
- •8.5.3 Reading Speed and Reading Ability in Children with Amblyopia
- •8.5.4 Impact of Amblyopia Upon Education
- •8.5.6 The Impact of Strabismus Upon HRQoL
- •8.5.7 Critique of HRQoL Issues in Amblyopia
- •8.5.8 The Impact of the Condition or the Impact of Treatment?
- •References
- •9. The Brückner Test Revisited
- •9.1 Amblyopia and Amblyogenic Disorders
- •9.1.1 Early Detection of Amblyopia
- •9.1.2 Brückner’s Original Description
- •9.2.1 Physiology
- •9.2.2 Performance
- •9.2.3 Shortcomings and Pitfalls
- •9.3.1 Physiology
- •9.3.2 Performance
- •9.3.3 Possibilities and Limitations
- •9.4.1 Physiology
- •9.4.2 Performance
- •9.4.3 Possibilities and Limitations
- •9.5 Eye Movements with Alternating Illumination of the Pupils
- •References
- •10. Amblyopia Treatment 2009
- •10.1 Amblyopia Treatment 2009
- •10.1.1 Introduction
- •10.1.2 Epidemiology
- •10.1.3 Clinical Features of Amblyopia
- •10.1.4 Diagnosis of Amblyopia
- •10.1.5 Natural History
- •10.2 Amblyopia Management
- •10.2.1 Refractive Correction
- •10.2.2 Occlusion by Patching
- •10.2.3 Pharmacological Treatment with Atropine
- •10.2.4 Pharmacological Therapy Combined with a Plano Lens
- •10.3 Other Treatment Issues
- •10.3.1 Bilateral Refractive Amblyopia
- •10.3.3 Maintenance Therapy
- •10.4 Other Treatments
- •10.4.1 Filters
- •10.4.2 Levodopa/Carbidopa Adjunctive Therapy
- •10.5 Controversy
- •10.5.1 Optic Neuropathy Rather than Amblyopia
- •References
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.1.2 Sensory or Motor Etiology
- •11.1.4 History
- •11.1.5 Outcome Parameters
- •11.2 Outcome of Surgery in the ELISSS
- •11.2.1 Reasons for the ELISSS
- •11.2.2 Summarized Methods of the ELISSS
- •11.2.3 Summarized Results of the ELISSS
- •11.2.4 Binocular Vision at Age Six
- •11.2.5 Horizontal Angle of Strabismus at Age Six
- •11.2.6 Alignment is Associated with Binocular Vision
- •11.3 Number of Operations and Spontaneous Reduction into Microstrabismus Without Surgery
- •11.3.1 The Number of Operations Per Child and the Reoperation Rate in the ELISSS
- •11.3.2 Reported Reoperation Rates
- •11.3.3 Test-Retest Reliability Studies
- •11.3.6 Spontaneous Reduction of the Angle
- •11.3.7 Predictors of Spontaneous Reduction into Microstrabismus
- •Appendix
- •References
- •12.1 Overview
- •12.1.2 Manifest Latent Nystagmus (MLN)
- •12.1.2.1 Clinical Characteristics of Manifest Latent Nystagmus (MLN)
- •12.1.3 Congenital Periodic Alternating Nystagmus (PAN)
- •12.1.3.1 Clinical characteristics of congenital periodic alternating nystagmus
- •12.2 Compensatory Mechanisms
- •12.2.1 Dampening by Versions
- •12.2.2 Dampening by Vergence
- •12.2.3 Anomalous Head Posture (AHP)
- •12.2.3.4 Measurement of AHP
- •12.2.3.6 Testing AHP at Near
- •12.3 Treatment
- •12.3.1 Optical Treatment
- •12.3.1.1 Refractive Correction
- •12.3.1.2 Spectacles and Contact Lenses (CL)
- •12.3.1.3 Prisms
- •12.3.1.4 Low Visual Aids
- •12.3.2 Medication
- •12.3.3 Acupuncture
- •12.3.4 Biofeedback
- •12.3.6 Surgical Treatment of Congenital Nystagmus
- •12.3.6.1 Management of Horizontal AHP
- •12.3.6.2 Management of Vertical AHP
- •12.3.6.3 Management of Head Tilt
- •Retro-Equatorial Recession of Horizontal Rectus Muscles
- •The Tenotomy Procedure
- •References
- •13.1 Dissociated Deviations
- •13.2 Surgical Alternatives to Treat Patients with DVD
- •13.2.1 Symmetric DVD with Good Bilateral Visual Acuity, with No Oblique Muscles Dysfunction
- •13.2.2 Bilateral DVD with Deep Unilateral Amblyopia
- •13.2.3 DVD with Inferior Oblique Overaction (IOOA) and V Pattern
- •13.2.4 DVD with Superior Oblique Overaction (SOOA) and A Pattern
- •13.2.5 Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Surgeries for DVD
- •13.3 Dissociated Horizontal Deviation
- •13.4 Dissociated Torsional Deviation. Head tilts in patients with Dissociated Strabismus
- •13.5 Conclusions
- •References
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.2 Clinical and Theoretical Investigations
- •References
- •15.1 General Principles of Surgical Treatment in Paralytic Strabismus
- •15.1.1 Aims of Treatment
- •15.1.2 Timing of Surgery
- •15.1.3 Preoperative Assessment
- •15.1.4 Methods of Surgical Treatment
- •15.2 Third Nerve Palsy
- •15.2.1 Complete Third Nerve Palsy
- •15.2.2 Incomplete Third Nerve Palsy
- •15.3 Fourth Nerve Palsy
- •15.4 Sixth Nerve Palsy
- •References
- •16.1 Graves Orbitopathy (GO): Pathogenesis and Clinical Signs
- •16.1.1 Graves Orbitopathy is Part of a Systemic Disease: Graves Disease (GD)
- •16.1.2 Graves Orbitopathy−Clinical Signs
- •16.1.2.1 Clinical Changes Result in Typical Symptoms
- •16.1.3 Clinical Examination of GO
- •16.1.3.1 Signs of Activity
- •16.1.3.2 Assessing Severity of GO
- •16.1.3.3 Imaging
- •16.2 Natural History
- •16.3 Treatment of GO
- •16.3.1.1 Glucocorticoid Treatment
- •16.3.1.2 Orbital Radiotherapy
- •16.3.1.3 Combined Therapy: Glucocorticoids and Orbital Radiotherapy
- •16.3.1.4 Other Immunosuppressive Treatments and New Developments
- •16.3.2 Inactive Disease Stages
- •16.3.2.1 Orbital Decompression
- •16.3.2.2 Extraocular Muscle Surgery
- •16.3.2.3 Lid Surgery
- •16.4 Thyroid Dysfunction and GO
- •16.5.1 Relationship Between Cigarette Smoking and Graves Orbitopathy
- •16.5.2 Genetic Susceptibility
- •16.6 Special Situations
- •16.6.1 Euthyroid GO
- •16.6.2 Childhood GO
- •16.6.3 GO and Diabetes
- •References
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