Lexicology ЗЧО Ответы
.pdf10.The Classification of Suffixes: 1) Classification of S. According to Their Origin; Classification of S. According To Their Productivity; Structural Types of Suffixes: Simple and Compound Suffixes.
1.Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups: a) native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly.
b) Romanic, such as : -tion, -ment, -able, -eer. c) Greek, such as : -ist, -ism, -ize.
d) Russian, such as -nik.
2.Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:
a)productive, such as : -er, -ize, --ly, -ness.
b)semi-productive, such as : -eer, -ette, -ward.
c)non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length).
According to the structure suffixes are divided into:
-simple: -er (speaker), -ist (dramatist),
compound: -ical (ironical), -ation (formation), -manship (sportsmanship), -ably / ibly (terribly, reasonably) etc.
Some suffixes can be polysemantic. For example, -er can form nouns with the following meanings: an agent or a doer of the action expressed by the stem (porter), a profession or an occupation (baker), a device or a tool (transmitter).
11.The Classifications of Prefixes: 1) Semantic Classification; 2) Classification of P. According to Their Origin; 3) Classification of P. According To Their Productivity.
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words.
Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy).
Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) (over the table).
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another (be button, interfamily, post college etc.).
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles :
1. Semantic classification :
a)prefixes of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc,
b)prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect),
c)prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (interplanetary) , hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc.
2. Origin of prefixes:
a)native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, underetc.
b)Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, reetc.
c)Greek, such as : sym-, hyperetc.
3. Acc. to their productivity both suffixes & prefixes are classified as productive
& nonproductive.
Native Productive: -er, -ness, -less, -ful, -ster, -ed, -ing, -ish, -y, -ly, un-, under, over-, out-, mis-, fore-
Native Nonproductive: -th, -hood, -dom, -some, -ship
Foreign Productive: -ee, -ism, -al, -ic, -tion, -ist, -able, dis-, re-, pre-, anti-, en-, super-, non-
Foreign Nonproductive: -ant, -ent, -ous
12. Semi-prefixes + Prefixes Changing the Part of Speech Meaning.
Semi prefixes are an important part of English grammar. A semi prefix is a letter or group of letters that is added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning. Semi prefixes are used to create new words, or to change the meaning of existing words. There are many different types of semi prefixes, and they can be used to create new words in many different ways.
One common type of semi prefix is the suffix. A suffix is a letter or group of letters that is added to the end of a word to change its meaning. Suffixes can be used to create new words, or to change the meaning of existing words. Another common type of semi prefix is the prefix. A prefix is a letter or group of letters that is added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning.
A prefix is a word element that is added to the beginning of a word. It can change the meaning of the word, as well as the part of speech. For example, the prefix
“un-” can change a word from a positive to a negative meaning, such as “happy” to
“unhappy”. Similarly, the prefix “pre-” can change a word to mean “before”, such as “view” to “preview”.
13. Characteristic Features of Compound Words in Different Languages.
There are two characteristic features of English compounds:
1.both components in an English compound are free stems, that is they can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses.
2.English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road, off- the-record.
It is common knowledge that the combining elements in Russian are as a rule bound forms, but in English combina-tions like Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Soviet, IndoEuropean or politico-eco-nomical, where the first elements are bound forms, occur very rarely and seem to be avoided. They are coined on the neo-Latin pattern.
The predominance of two-stem structures in English compounding distinguishes it from the German language.
14. Ways of Forming Compound Words.
A compound word is formed by joining two or more words to create a new word with a different meaning. The words that make up a compound word can be of different types, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs. Compound words can be formed in three ways: closed, open, or hyphenated.
Compound words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of:
a)reduplication, e.g. too-too, and also by means of reduplicatin combined with sound interchange, e.g. rope-ripe,
b)conversion from word-groups, e.g. to micky-mouse, can-do, makeup etc,
c)back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to bloodtransfuse, to fingerprint etc,
d)analogy, e.g. lie-in (on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone-in, brawn-drain (on the analogy with brain-drain) etc.
15. The Classifications of Compound Words:
According to Their Structure:
1.Closed Compounds: Two words joined together without a space (e.g., notebook).
2.Hyphenated Compounds:Words joined with a hyphen (e.g., well-known).
3.Open Compounds:Words that are separate (e.g., swimming pool).
According to Their Joining Element:
1.Endocentric Compounds:The compound has a head that determines the overall meaning (e.g., blackboard).
2.Exocentric Compounds:The compound's meaning is not directly related to its components (e.g., pickpocket).
According to the Parts of Speech:
1. Noun-Noun Compounds: Two nouns combined (e.g., sunflower).
2.Adjective-Noun Compounds: An adjective modifying a noun (e.g., darkroom).
3.Noun-Verb Compounds: A noun and a verb combined (e.g., babysit).
These classifications help understand the structure and meaning of compound
words.
16. The Classifications of Compound Words:
According to the Semantic Relations between the Components:
1.Determinative Compounds: One element determines or modifies the other (e.g., blackboard).
2.Coordinative Compounds: Both elements are of equal importance (e.g., sunflower).
According to the Order of Components:
1.Head-Modifier Compounds: The main component is followed by a modifying element (e.g., bedroom).
2.Modifier-Head Compounds: The modifying element precedes the main component (e.g., blackboard).
According to the Motivation of Their Meaning:
1.Type-Headed Compounds: The first component indicates a broader category, and the second is a specific type (e.g., fruit juice).
2.Token-Headed Compounds: The first component is a specific instance, and the second is a general category (e.g., maple tree).
These classifications provide insights into the semantic relations, order, and
motivation of meaning within compound words.
17. Different Points of View on the Nature of Conversion.
Certainly, here are different points of view on the nature of conversion:
1. Generative Grammar View:
- Conversion is seen as a syntactic operation, transforming one word class into another without the addition of affixes.
2. Functional Linguistics View:
- Emphasizes the functional roles of words in context, viewing conversion as a pragmatic adjustment to communication needs.
3. Cognitive Linguistics View:
- Focuses on how mental processes and conceptual structures influence language use, suggesting that conversion reflects cognitive flexibility.
4. Historical Linguistics View:
- Examines the historical development of words, observing how conversion has played a role in language evolution over time.
5. Pragmatic View:
- Considers conversion as a pragmatic choice driven by communicative efficiency, where speakers adapt language for clarity or conciseness.
6. Lexical Semantics View:
- Explores the meaning relationships between words, analyzing conversion as a process that maintains or shifts semantic roles.
These different perspectives contribute to a comprehensive understanding of conversion, highlighting its syntactic, functional, cognitive, historical, pragmatic, and semantic dimensions.
18. Semantic Groups of Verbs Converted from Nouns.
Certainly, here are verbs converted from nouns, organized into semantic groups: 1. Communication:
-message (noun) -> message (verb)
-email (noun) -> email (verb)
2. Motion:
-jump (noun) -> jump (verb)
-drive (noun) -> drive (verb) 3. Creation/Transformation:
-painting (noun) -> paint (verb)
-sculpture (noun) -> sculpt (verb) 4. Possession/Consumption:
-possession (noun) -> possess (verb)
-consumption (noun) -> consume (verb) 5. Action/Activity:
-fight (noun) -> fight (verb)
-dance (noun) -> dance (verb)
6. Perception:
-sight (noun) -> see (verb)
-sound (noun) -> sound (verb) 7. Relation/Connection:
-friendship (noun) -> befriend (verb)
-marriage (noun) -> marry (verb)
These examples illustrate how nouns can transform into verbs while maintaining semantic coherence within specific groups.
19. Meanings of Verbs Converted from Adjectives.
Certainly, here are verbs converted from adjectives, along with their meanings: 1. Bright (Adjective) → Brighten (Verb):
-to make or become brighter or more illuminated. 2. Quick (Adjective) → Quicken (Verb):
-to make something happen faster or to become faster. 3. Smooth (Adjective) → Smooth (Verb):
-to make something smooth or free from irregularities. 4. Clear (Adjective) → Clear (Verb):
-to remove obstacles or make something transparent. 5. Strong (Adjective) → Strengthen (Verb):
-to make something stronger or more robust. 6. Deep (Adjective) → Deepen (Verb):
-to make something more profound or to become more intense. 7. Wide (Adjective) → Widen (Verb):
-to make something broader or to become broader.
8. Sharp (Adjective) → Sharpen (Verb):
- to make something sharper or more acute.
These examples illustrate how verbs derived from adjectives often involve enhancing, intensifying, or altering the quality described by the original adjective.
20. Semantic Groups of Nouns Converted From Verbs.
Certainly, here are nouns converted from verbs, organized into semantic groups: 1. Action/Activity:
-run (verb) → run (noun)
-dance (verb) → dance (noun) 2. Result/Outcome:
-build (verb) → build (noun)
-research (verb) → research (noun) 3. Agent/Doer:
-teach (verb) → teacher (noun)
-sing (verb) → singer (noun)
4. Instrument/Tool:
-paint (verb) → paintbrush (noun)
-write (verb) → typewriter (noun) 5. Location/Place:
-grow (verb) → garden (noun)
-cook (verb) → kitchen (noun)
6. State/Condition:
-develop (verb) → development (noun)
-heal (verb) → healing (noun)
7. Time/Duration:
-play (verb) → playtime (noun)
-work (verb) → workday (noun)
These examples showcase how nouns can be derived from verbs, categorized based on their semantic roles or functions.
21. Criteria of Semantic Derivation.
Certainly, here are criteria for semantic derivation:
1. Semantic Relationship:
- There must be a clear, logical connection in meaning between the base word and the derived word.
2. Change in Meaning:
- The derived word should represent a noticeable shift or extension in meaning from the original word.
3. Sense Extension:
- The derived word often extends or narrows the sense of the base word in a meaningful way.
4. Affixation:
- Derivation commonly involves the addition of prefixes or suffixes to the base word, altering its meaning.
5. Contextual Appropriateness:
- The derived word should be appropriate in specific contexts, considering the intended use and communication purpose.