Lexicology ЗЧО Ответы

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Зима 2024

1.Subject Matter of Lexicology and Its Main Types (General; Special; Descriptive; Historical; Comparative).

Lexicology is the part of linguistics which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups. The term «vocabulary» is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the language possesses. Lexicology can study the development of the vocabulary, the origin of words and word-groups, their semantic relations and the development of their semantic structure, change of meaning.

General Lexicology is a part of General linguistics which studies the general properties of words, the specific features of words of any particular language. It studies the pecularities of words common to all the languages.

Special Lexicology deals with the words of a definite language. Ex.: English Lexicology', Russian Lexicology, Uzbek Lexicology and so on.

Descriptive Lexicology studies the words at a synchronic aspect. It is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as they exist at the present time.

Historical or diachronic Lexicology deals with the development of the vocabulary and the changes it has undergone. For example. In descriptive Lexicology the words «to take», «to adopt» are considered as being English not differing from such native words as «child», «foot», «stone» etc. But in historical Lexicology they are treated as borrowed words.

Comparative Lexicology deals with the properties of the vocabulary of two or more languages. In comparative Lexicology the main characteristic features of the words of two or more languages are compared. For example. Russian-English Lexicology, English French Lexicology and etc.

2.Lexicology and Its Links with Other Branches of Linguistics, Applied Branches of Lexicology.

1) Lexicology is closely connected with phonetics because they have the same object of studies, they both studies the word, but phonetics studies the outer form and lexicology studies the inner form of the word.

2)Lexicology is connected with grammar because lexicology studies words and grammar studies the grammatical relations between words and how words are combined into phrases and sentences. Meaningful communication is not possible without knowing the grammar rules.

3)Lexicology is connected with the history of language because the history of language studies the changes and the development of the vocabulary in the course of time.

4)Lexicology is connected with stylistics because stylistics studies the differentiation of the vocabulary according to the sphere of communication.

5)Lexicology is connected with the sociolinguistics because sociolinguistics studies the extra linguistic and social causes of the changes in the vocabulary of a language.

3.Concept and Word.

semantic structure) reflects both general subject-logical connections, and relations with the lexical meanings of other words of a given (or close) lexical paradigm, and the boundaries of lexical compatibility, and the nature of lexical and grammatical attribution (that is why dictionaries indicate the part of speech to which the word being defined belongs, as well as general formalcategorical meanings), and the emotional-expressive properties inherent in the word.

4.Word as the Main Unit of Language and Speech. The Principal Characteristics of a Word.

The word is the basic unit of language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. The word is a structural and semantic entity within the language system.

The modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between the external and the internal structures of the word. By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the word post-impressionists the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root press, the noun-forming suffixes - ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality -s. The internal structure of the word, or its meaning, is nowadays commonly referred to as the word's semantic structure.

Another structural aspect of the word is its unity. The word possesses both external (or formal) unity and semantic unity. The formal unity of the word can be best illustrated by comparing a word and a word-group comprising identical constituents. The difference between a blackbird and a black bird is best explained by their relationship with the grammatical system of the language. The word blackbird, which is characterized by unity, possesses a single grammatical framing: blackbird/s. The first constituent black is not subject to any grammatical changes. In the word-group a black bird each constituent can acquire grammatical forms of its own.The same example may be used to illustrate what we mean by semantic unity. In the word-group a black bird each of the meaningful words conveys a separate concept: bird — a kind of living creature; black — a colour. The word blackbird conveys only one concept: the type of bird. This is one of the main features of any word: it always conveys one concept, no matter how many component morphemes it may have in its external structure.

Words may have phonetic, graphic and morphological variants:

often – [Þfən]/[ Þftən] – phonetic variants

birdy/birdie – graphic variants

phonetic/phonetical – morphological variants

5.Lexical Meaning, Grammatical Meaning and Their Expression in the Root and the Inflection, the Paradigm.

There are two types of meaning to be found in words and word forms:

1)the grammatical meaning. Such word forms as “girls”, “writers”, “tables”, etc., though denoting different objects of reality have smth in common, namely the grammatical meaning of plurality, which can be found in all of them.

2)the lexical meaning. Besides the grammatical meaning, there is another component of meaning. Unlike the grammatical meaning this component is identical in all the forms of the word. Thus the word-forms “go”, “goes”, “went”,

“going” possess different grammatical meanings of tense, person and so on, but in each of these forms we find one and the same semantic component denoting the process of movement. This is the lexical meaning of the word, which may be described as the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit.

Thus, by lexical meaning we designate the meaning proper to the given linguistic

unit in all its forms and disrtibutations, while by grammatical meaning we

designate the meaning proper to sets of word forms common to all words of a

certain class.

Both lexical and the grammatical meanings make up the word meaning as neither

can exist without the other.

The branch of lexicology, that is devoted to the study of meaning is known as

semasiology. the term "paradigm" refers to a set of forms that a word can take, or a

set of related words, that exhibit similar grammatical features. For example, in

English, the verb "to run" has different forms for different tenses, such as "run,"

"ran," and "run." This set of forms constitutes a paradigm of the verb "to run."

There are two types of paradigms in linguistics:

1 Inflectional paradigms: These are paradigms that show how words change in form to indicate grammatical categories such as tense, mood, number, gender, and case. For example, the paradigms for the verb "to run" would show the forms "run," "ran," "run," and "running."

2 Lexical paradigms: These are paradigms that show related words that belong to the same semantic category. For example, a lexical paradigm of English verbs might include the words "run," "walk," "jump," "swim," and "dance."

6.Structural Types of Words.

There are 4 structural types of words in English:

1.Simple (root) words consist of one root morpheme and an inflection. In many cases it’s zero: Seldom, chairs, longer, asked, to do, desk, lamp, to try.

2.Derived words consist of 1 root morpheme and 1 or several affixes: unemployed, derestricted, active, activity, uncomfortable, unbelievable, represented

3.Compound words consist of 2 or more root morphemes and an inflection in their structure: blackboard = black (stem) + board (stem), penny-in-the-slot = penny (stem) + in (stem) + the (stem) + slot (stem), baby-moons, wait-and-see

4.Compound-derived words consists 2 or more root morphemes, 1 affix and an inflection in their structure:

light-minded = light (stem) + mind (stem) + ed (suffix) job-hoper

The stem is the part of the word which remains unchanged. E.g. the stem “hop” can be found in the words: hop, hops, hopped, hopping

7.Nominative Binomials: Essential Features, Semantic Structure, Functioning.

Nominative binomials in English have the structure “noun + noun”, i.e. they are formed by juxtaposing two stems (words).

concepts expressed by nominative binomials divided into 4 groups:

1. Substantive concepts themselves refer to materially “independent” objects that actually or potentially serve as the object of direct manipulation by a person.

Within this group the following lexico-semantic subgroups can be distinguished:

a) names of animals, birds, aquatic inhabitants.

In English "passenger + pigeon" - zool. “passenger pigeon” (passenger + pigeon) is a concept expressing part of the whole: the species “passenger pigeon” as a representative of the pigeon family.Here, the 1st component of the binomial contains, obviously, a characteristic feature of the entire species - migrating, moving from place to place, and the 2nd component already names the genus itself.

b) names of professions.

English "paper + boy" "newspaper seller" (newspaper + boy); "passkey + man" "thief-burglar" (master key + man);

c) names of tools and devices.

English "pen + knife" "penknife" (writing pen; pen with feather + knife);

d) household items.

English "punch + bowl" "punch bowl" (punch + cup, bowl).

e) names of minerals and precious metals.

English "parent + rock" geol. “maternal, uterine rock” (parent + rock); "red + ochre" "hematite" (red + ocher).

F) names of plants.

English "passion + flower" bot. “passion flower, passiflora” is the flower of passion and all lovers, which is conveyed in its very name: “passion + flower”.

g) items of clothing.

English "opera + cloak" "coat (for traveling), cape" (opera + cloak, mantle); "opera + hat" folding cylinder" (opera + hat). In this case, all wardrobe items are intended for going out, which is clearly evident from the 1st component “opera”.

h) “family ties”: English. "country + cousin" "relative from the province" (village + cousin; relative) and "(industrial) buildings/structures/vehicles»

2. Subject-specific concepts.

These include materially, really existing objects, but not material in the literal sense. They can be represented by names denoting material natural phenomena - snow, fog, etc. and formations - shoal, pass, steppe, taiga.

3. Non-subject-specific concepts.

These are real phenomena

accessible to direct perception by the senses, or they can be perceived indirectly, although they themselves do not have a material substance and are not material.

a) time period.

English"part + time" "part-time" (part + working time).

4. Abstract concepts.

These include concepts that are the result of abstracting activity of thinking.

a) human qualities.

"paper + tiger" "paper tiger", "non-dangerous opponent» (paper + tiger). Here the tiger, an allegory of an imaginary enemy, is depicted as made of paper - a very fragile material, i.e. this enemy can be easily defeated, it does not pose any danger.

b) the status of a person.

English "opinion + giver" (opinion + the one who gives) "spokesman of public opinion"; "pen + friend" (pen + friend) "acquaintance/pen pal".

c) states.

English "stage + fever" (stage + fever) "an irresistible attraction to the stage." The use of such an emotionally charged noun as “fever,” i.e., a state of maximum aggravation, on edge, helps to describe the excitement, the irresistible craving for the stage, for public performance, that a person experiences.

d) scientific terminology.

English "red + blindness" honey “color blindness, red color blindness” (red + blindness); "party + wall" page firewall (load-bearing structure + wall).

e) concepts related to religious views and mythological ideas.

English "Passion + Sunday" (relative to the passion of the Lord + Sunday) "5th Sunday of Lent"; “Passion + Week” (relative to the passion of the Lord + week) “holy week, 6th week of Lent”;

e) historical concepts.

English "red + coat" (red color + frock coat, uniform) source. "English soldier" The 1st component is a characteristic feature of the entire complex as a whole, the 2nd component is an exponent of the main semantic load. In this case, with the help of synecdoche, a historically established concept is conveyed - the representation of an English soldier as a figure in a red uniform. Indeed, the English/British army since the times of the Great British Empire (royal honor guard to this day) had red uniforms, which is reflected in this historical term.

8.Types of the Morphemes. Splinters, Completives.

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of the language (not a part of

the word), which as it appears may be larger than a word in the case of analytical

forms of words.

1.Lexical morphemes

2.Grammatical morphemes

There are different types of morphemes in English:

1) Acc. to their meaning & the role in word-building all morphemes are divided into 2 groups: root-morphemes (roots) & affixational morphemes (affixes).

The root morpheme is the lexical nucleus, the semantic center of the word. The rootmorpheme is a common part of a word-building means. E.g. work, worker, workable, workday

Affixational morphemes can in their turn be subdivided into 2 groups: 1. Acc. to their position affixes can be subdivided into:

-prefixes (morphemes which precede the root) E.g. ab normal, irrelevant -suffixes (morphemes which follow the root)

-infixes (morphemes which are placed within the root) E.g. stand

2. Acc. to their function & meaning all affixes may be divided into:

-grammatical affixes (functional affixes: endings, inflexions) are used to form ne gr. forms of the same word. There are 8 gr. affixes in English: -s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est – verbs; -s, -s’ – nouns; -th – numerals.

-derivational affixes serve to build new words. There are about 200 derivational affixes in English

2) Acc. to their structure morphemes may be divided into 3 groups:

-free-morphemes (coincide with separate word) E.g. heart less, dis agree, friend ly -bound-morphemes (do not occur separately) E.g. horror (horr + bound affixal morpheme) horr – не существует

Free morphemes are always root morphemes. All affixes are bound morphemes. -semi-affixes can function both as affixes & root morphemes. Semi-affixes: -man, - free, -phobia, -mania, -like, -proof, -oriented, half-, ill-, etc. E.g. lady like, water proof, half -sister, gentle man

Affixes should not be confused with combining forms. Combining forms are bound root morphemes of Greek or Latin origin (occur in compounds & derivatives): tele -, poly-, auto-, moto-, graph-, micro, -logy. E.g. television, automatic.

Splinters are the result of clipping the end of the beginning of a word and producing a number of new words on the analogy.

Splinters have 1 function: they serve to change the lexical meaning of the same PoS. The main function of suffixes is to form one PoS from another PoS. Ex: -er, -ing, - meant form nouns from verbal stems.

Completives Я НЕ ЗНАЮ ЧТО ЭТО ТАКОЕ, ЭТОГО ДАЖЕ НЕТ В

ИНТЕРНЕТЕ. ПРОСТО СМОЙТЕ МЕНЯ В УНИТАЗ КАК ВТУЛКУ

ЗЕВА

Bound lexical morphemes are affixes. Affixes are subdivided into prefixes, suffixes, infixes, combining forms or completives. Bound grammatical morphemes are endings (inflexions). For example: -s for the plural of nouns, -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs and so on.

9.Affixation and its types. The Classifications of Suffixes: 1) Part-of-Speech Classification; 2) Semantic Classification; 3) Lexico-Grammatical

Character of the Stem.

Affixation – is one of the most productive ways of word-building. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite PoS.

Affixation is divided into: suffixation and prefixation.

Suffixation – is the main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. «educate» is a verb, «educatee» is a noun, and « music» is a noun, «musicdom» is also a noun).

There are different classifications of suffixes :

1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech

are given here :

a)noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism),

b)adjective-forming suffixes, such as : -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious),

c)verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify),

d)adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (singly), -ward (tableward),

e)numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).

2. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can

be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:

a)the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student),

b)nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English),

c)collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership), -ati (literati),

d)diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), -ette (kitchenette),

e)quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).

3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to

certain groups of stems are subdivided into:

a)suffixes added to verbal stems, such as : -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization),

b)suffixes added to noun stems, such as : -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish),

c)suffixes added to adjective stems, such as : -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).