ПК 1 Англ яз 3,4 семестры / Course of Grammar

3.Collective Nouns ( Собирательные) - Collective nouns denote:

1)Groups of people (team, cast, family, company…)

2)Names of multitude ( police, people…)

3)Nouns which occur only in the plural form and require the verb in the plural ( clothes, goods, customs, arms, binoculars, glasses, trousers…)

a) The contents of smth ( a bottle, a bag, a room, a book) are everything that is contained in it

b) The contents of a speech, a television programme, an essay is its subject matter and the ideas that are in it, in contrast to such things as its form or style.

4)Nouns which are always singular in form (except the word "news") and take the verb in the singular. Here belong:

a) abstract nouns: advice, news, money, information, weather, rubbish, work, knowledge, progress, traffic, accommodation.

b) material nouns: baggage, luggage, jewellery, furniture, equipment, (bed)linen, clutter, litter, garbage, rubbish..)

c) names of diseases: measles, mumps, diabetes, shingles, hepatitis.

Classification of nouns

Countable: it can agree with the verb in the singular and in the plural; it can also take the indefinite article. The indefinite pronouns (not) many or (a) few are used with it.

Uncountable: it agrees with the verb only in the singular; it can’t take the indefinite article. (not) much /

(a) little are used with it.

Number

Countable nouns in English have two numbers — the singular and the plural, which can be expressed in English by:

1.adding -s or -es to the singular form of a noun: wish-wishes, day-days

2.the change of the root vowel: a man — men, a goose — geese , a louse — lice

3.identical forms for the singular and for the plural:

1)a deer — two deer , a sheep — ten sheep , a swine — a lot of swine

2)a fish — (many) fish (also with some kinds of fish: a carp, a pike, a salmon, a trout, etc.)

3)a bisonbison(s)

4)a speciesthree species

5)a lazy-bones – lazy-bones (лентяи)

Names of nationalities ending in -ese, -ss also have identical forms for the singular and for the plural: a Portuguese — ten Portuguese, a Burmese — the Burmese

4. foreign plurals:

Singular ending: us, a, um ex, ix, is, on

Regular plural: uses, as, ums, exes, ixes, ons

Latin ( Greek) plural: I, ae, a, ices, ices, es,

5. The plural of compound nouns.

1) Generally compounds form the plural by adding -(e)s to the second element. : a grown-up — grown-ups

Искл: a passer by – passers by ; a hanger on – hangers on ;

2)Nouns ending in -in-law add the plural -s to the noun: a father-in-law — fathers-in-law

3)If the first element is man or woman, we change both elements: a woman-driver — women-drivers, menservants;

6. Uncountable nouns that are always in singular:

Advice, money, news, progress, work, furniture, rubbish, hair, guest, weather…

7. Uncountable nouns that aren’t plural:

Sweepings, odds and ends, greens, customs, scales, goods, shorts, trousers…

Вопрос 3. The Noun. The Case and Gender of the Noun.

Case

Is the grammatically categories that shows the relation of the noun with the other words , in the sentences is expressed by the form of the noun.

Case have 2 elements: Common (Общий) and Possessive (Притяжательный) 1. The common case hasn’t inflections, but has general meaning

Ex: teacher, student

2. The Possessive case expresses possession belonging

Для одуш-х: N’s + N

Ex: Grandma glasses

Для неодуш-х: No of N Ex: the leg of table

1.The Possessive Case is formed in the following ways:

1)by adding “s” or “just” (the apostrophe) to the stem of the noun in the singular not ending in “s”. Ex: the boy’s toy, a child’s game, student’s grammar

2)by adding “only” to the noun in the plural. The second “s” is not used: Ex: students’ life, workers’ wages

3)by adding an apostrophe (‘) and “s”, if a proper name ends in -s, -x, -z. In this case the full inflection is pronounced: Max’s ['mæksɪz] doubts

4)By adding the inflection “s” to the last element of a compound noun:

Ex: a brother-in-law’s virtues.

2.The possessive case use with inanimate nouns denoting:

1)time or distance: a moment’s silence, a two-miles’ drive.

2)seasons, years, months and days: a summer’s morning, July’s heat, today’s news.

3)countries, cities and towns: England’s history, France’s gardens.

4)unique nouns (the world, the sun, the moon, the earth, names of planets): the sun’s rays, the world’s history.

5)names of vessels: the ship’s crew, the yacht’s owner

6)ordinary objects: the river’s bed, the ocean’s roar

The group Possessive is used , when two coordinate nouns express join+ possession

Ex: Peter and Mary’s father – 1 common father

Ex: Peter’s and Mary’s fathers – 2 different fathers

Absolute Possessive is used:

1)to express some locality (with local meaning: a house, a shop, a clinic, an auction, etc.) : the baker’s, the barber’s

2)with partative meaning which equals to “one of” : Bess is a friend of my mother’s.

3)to express some strong emotions (mostly negative ones) : How I dislike that new boyfriend of Susan’s!

! When dedication is implied – we don’t use the Possessive Case

Gender

The category of gender isn’t grammatically expressed in English. We can name of a gender of nouns based on:

1.the lexical meaning of the noun:

Ex: a man — a woman, a boy — a girl,

2.based on personal pronouns (he, she, it):

Ex: The principal entered the hall and everybody rose to greet her.

3.based on the suffixes -ess, -ine, -ina, -er, -ette:

Ex: a manager — a manageress, a poet — a poetess…

To be politically correctly we use:

a)use plural forms:

Ex: Lawyers must pass the bar exam before they begin to practise.

b)use both pronouns:

Ex: A lawyer must pass the bar exam before he or she can begin to practise.

c)eliminating the pronouns:

Ex: A lawyer must pass the bar exam before beginning to practise.

d)using non-sexist words like:

Ex: a chairlady — a chairperson, a congressman — a member of Congress

The use of female gender is traditional with the names of vessels (ships, boats, cruisers, etc.), vehicles (cars, coaches, planes), countries: The new yacht has started on her voyage.

To be politically correct, mind the use of “they”, especially in tag-questions: Everyone tried to do their best. If someone wants to spend their money here, it isn’t up to me to stop them.

Вопрос 4. The Article. Three types of the Article. The Indefinite Article and its use.

The Article is a word that serves as a noun determiner alongside with such determiners as demonstrative, possessive and indefinite pronouns. The article is one of the main means of expressing the category of definiteness and indefiniteness in English.

Types of Articles with Examples

Definite Article

Definite means to be clear, exact or obvious about something. It is called definite because it is used in relation to a particular thing or person. “The” is the definite article in English, which is used to refer to

particular nouns, the identities of which are known. The definite article indicates that the noun is specific. The speaker talks about a particular thing.

For example:

The cat sat on the couch.

The dog attacked me and ran away

Indefinite Articles

Indefinite means something which is not clear, obvious or exact. They are called indefinite because the identity of the thing or person being spoken about is left unclear or indefinite. The indefinite article indicates that the noun is not someone or something in particular. The speaker talks about anyone of that type of things. The indefinite articles in English are “a” and “an.”

For example:

Do you have a pencil? I want to have an apple.

Where Articles Are Not Used?

The usage of articles is one of the most confusing things to remember for many English learners. It is not always necessary to use articles everywhere. Our tip is to remember the cases where articles should not be used.

Do not use articles:

1. When you talk about things in general. For example: I like birds.

Here, the speaker wants to imply that he/she likes any bird in general, and not a specific type of a bird.

2.When talking about plural count nouns. For example: Dogs make great pets.

Here, you are not talking about one specific dog or one specific pet; you are talking about all dogs in general.

3.When talking about non-count nouns. For example: I love music.

Here, the speaker is saying that he enjoys music, in general – not any specific kind of music or song.

4.When talking about specific days or holidays, geography, companies, languages. For example: I have bought candles for Diwali.

Here, the speaker is talking about the candles he has bought to use on the day of Diwali.

5.When talking about Geography.

Articles are not used before countries, states, cities, towns, continents, single lakes, single mountains, etc. For example: I live in Canada.

Mt. Rosa is part of the Alps mountain range.

Here, Mt. Rosa is one mountain, whereas The Alps refer to a group of mountains.

NOTE:

The United Arab Emirates, The Russian Federation”, The People’s Republic of China, The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, The Dominion of Canada, etc., all contain articles because of the usage of common nouns such as kingdom, republic, states, united, dominion, emirates, etc.

The Netherlands, the Philippines, The Bahamas, The Maldives, etc. have ‘the’ before them due to the plural nature of the names of the countries.

The Ukraine, the Sudan, etc. are exceptions to all of these rules. It is perhaps, due to common use, or at least previous common use. There have been historical uses of articles before names of countries that don’t fit into either category.

6. When you talk about companies.

For example: Steve Jobs founded Apple. I use Facebook every day.

Here, the speaker is referring to companies like Apple and Facebook.

7.When you talk about languages. For example: I speak Hindi.

Here, the speaker is talking about the language Hindi.

8.When you talk about places, locations, streets.

For example: My house is located on Callowhill Drive. I left my pen at home.

Here, a street called Callowhill Drive and speaker’s home are being talked about.

However, there are specific places that do need the use an article. For example:

the bank, the hospital, the post office, the airport, the train station, the bus stop, etc.

9.When you talk about sports and physical activities. For example: I love to play cricket.

She enjoys dancing.

Here, cricket and dancing is being talked about.

10.When there is a noun + number

For example: She is staying at the Hilton hotel in room 127.

The train to Montreal leaves from platform 9.

Here, the nouns are followed by numbers; hence, no article is used.

11. When talking about academic subjects.

For example: I hate attending Mathematics classes. Here, the mathematic classes are being discussed.

The Indefinite Article

The meanings:

1. It refers an object to a group of objects of the some kind. We can use word any/every instead of the article. A noun is representative of the class.

1)Classifying (general) meaning the article serves to refer an object to the class of objects of the same kind, just to classify it: I am a school teacher. It’s a teenager novel.

2)In its numerical meaning the indefinite article retains its original meaning of the cardinal numeral “one” and expresses oneness. This meaning is evident with nouns denoting units of measure (time, distance, length, weight, etc.): An apple a day keeps wrinkles away.

2. A countable noun in the singular takes the indefinite article if it is used:

1)in the function of the subject and just classifies it. : A student should work hard

2)in the function of a predicative: He is an air traffic controller.

3)in the function of a direct object: I wrote a letter. We got a Christmas card from London

4)in some set-phrases expressing one-time (однократные ) actions like: to be à success, to have a rest, to have a lovely time, to give a look, to give a lift, to give a hint, to do a favour, to make a will, to make a fuss, to make a mistake, to take a seat, to have a date, to keep an eye on.

5)after the exclamatory “what”, “such”: What an idea! What a surprise! What a shame! What a man!

If the noun is uncountable (abstract or material) no article is used: What fine weather! What interesting news!

6) with a descriptive attribute. Compare: It was night. — I was a cool night.

Вопрос 5. The Article. Three types of the Article. The Definite Article and its use.

The Definite Article

The Definite article is used:

1)if the context or the situation makes the noun clear. : Open the door. Go to the kitchen. Where is the key?

2)if the noun was already mentioned. : Three little Kittens lost their mittens…

3)if the noun has a restrictive (limiting) attribute. It may be expressed by a clause, a prepositional phrase, by the words very, right, left, central, wrong, only, one, opposite, main, last, next (following), same, by ordinal numerals, by the superlative degree of adjectives

4)with unique objects or notions. They are the sun, the moon, the earth, the world, the universe, the horizon, the equator, the south, the north, the west, the east, the globe, the Milky Way, the cosmos, the hemisphere, the atmosphere.

5)with an adverbial modifier of place to identify the exact place. : Jane is in the garden. The indefinite article is also possible.

6)in a number of idioms like: to make the best of something, to be in the know

The Generic Use of the Definite Article

1. A singular countable noun with the definite article may represent a whole class of objects, thus becoming the symbol

of that class, the image of it. We mainly find here names of animals, plants, professions and occupations, unique phenomena, inventions, collective nouns denoting social groups. Scientific terms are also often used generically.

But the indefinite article is not permissible when invention, genre or à phenomenon is meant.

2. The nouns man, woman, child used in a generic sense, take no article. : Now I know what man is capable of.

Woman’s work is never done.

Articles with the Names of Meals

To this group of nouns belong: breakfast, brunch (elevenses), lunch, dinner, supper, tea.

1.When these nouns are used in their abstract meaning denoting a process of taking food, or are associated with time, they are used without any article, such as: to have (take, prepare, serve, cook) dinner, breakfast, lunch, supper; to go to dinner, to be at dinner (lunch); to return by (before, after) supper.

2.The indefinite article is used when names of meals are modified by descriptive attributes. : You can get a hot supper here.

3.The definite article is found with names of meals if there is a situation, a context, a restrictive attribute, or if the food itself is meant: The dinner you cooked was marvelous.

4.Sometimes names of meals become countable nouns denoting:

1)a party (both articles may be used): We gave a dinner last night.

2)a portion (the indefinite article expresses oneness): I don’t have enough money to buy a supper.

The Use of Articles with Material Nouns

1.Material (uncountable) nouns used in a general sense take no article and have no plural form.: Food is something we cannot do without.

2.The definite article is used if the noun is clear from the situation or the context or if there is some limitation: The food she cooked was uneatable

3.Some uncountable material nouns can become countable and express different sorts, kinds, portions. Here belong the following nouns: beer, cheese, coffee, detergent, food, jam, meat, medicine, perfume, soup, tea, whisky, wine, wood, wool, etc

Вопрос 6. The Article. The use of Articles with material Nouns and uncountable abstract Nouns.

The Use of Articles with Uncountable Abstract Nouns

1.Uncountable abstract nouns used in a general sense take no article: Reason and love are sworn enemies

2.Uncountable nouns may become countable if they denote kinds or special aspects of the notion which they denote: A dull anger rose in his chest.

3.No article is used if abstract nouns are modified by such attributes as modern, English, French, real, authentic, symbolic, proletarian, medieval, ancient, contemporary. French poetry, modern art

4.Some uncountable nouns are never used with the indefinite article. They are mostly nouns of verbal character denoting actions, activity, processes, such as: information, news, advice, progress, work, weather, money, assistance, permission. They don’t take the indefinite article and agree with the verb only in the singular.

5.In the set-phrase “in all weathers” the noun weather is in the plural: She works in her garden in all weathers

Вопрос 7. The Article. Articles with the names of meals, diseases, parts of the day and seasons.

The Use of Articles with the Names of Diseases

1.Names of diseases are uncountable nouns and generally don’t take any article. They are: AIDS, appendicitis, cholera, diabetes, hepatitis, herpes, influenza

2.The definite article is possible with the names of such diseases as mumps, chickenpox, flu (but not influenza).

3.Words ending in -ache in British English have either the indefinite article or no article at all. I’ve got earache: He’s got an earache

The Use of Articles with Nouns Denoting Parts of the Day and Seasons

This group includes the nouns: day, night, morning, evening, noon, afternoon, midnight, dawn, dusk, twilight, sunrise, sunset, daytime, nightfall, winter, spring, summer and autumn.

1.These nouns are very often treated as abstract nouns. No article is used with reference to parts of the day or of the year, light or darkness, as in: As morning broke, the light wind died away.

2.When these nouns have a descriptive attribute the indefinite article is used: We were having tea in my room on a cold January afternoon.

3. The definite article may occur with such words if they are clear from the situation, or context, or if there is some limitation. We watched the sunrise from the balcony

4. In some prepositional phrases either the definite article or no article may be found.

1) the definite article is used in the following phrases: in the morning, in the evening, in the daytime, in the afternoon, in the night, in the winter, in the summertime.

2)no article is used with these nouns after the prepositions at, by, about, past, before, after, towards, till (until): at night, at dawn, by day, by night, by noon, by midnight, past noon, after sunset, till morning.

3)there is no article in the following phrases: all day (long), all night (through); day after day; day in, day out; from morning till night; (to work) day and night; in the dead of night; in the dead of winter.

Вопрос 8. The Article. The use of Articles with geographical and proper names.

The Use of Articles with Geographic(al) Names

1.Names of continents, countries, regions, cities, towns and villages are as a rule used without any article. Australia, Europe, Russia

1)No article is used either when these nouns have such attributes as north(ern), south(ern), ancient, old, central: North America, Southern France, Central America,

2)Names of states including such common nouns as union, kingdom, states, dominion, federation, republic, lands, are used with the definite article: the Soviet Union, the Union of South Africa

2.Names of some regions are traditionally used with the definite article: the Antarctic, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Far East, the Middle East

3.Names of streets, parts of the city, squares, parks are generally used without any article: Tverskaya Street, Regent Street, Oxford Street, Broadway, Charing Cross Road, Park Lane

Names of streets modified by ordinal numerals take no article: 42nd Street, Fifty Eighth Street, Fifth Avenue, 15th Park Lane, etc.

4.Names of oceans, seas, channels, canals, falls, rivers and lakes usually take the definite article : the Pacific (ocean), the Adriatic (sea), the English Channel, the Panama Canal

When names of lakes are preceded by the noun lake (which is often the case), no article is used. Lake Baikal, Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Balaton

5.Names of mountain chains and groups of islands are used with the definite article: the Rocky Mountains (the Rockies), the Himalayas

6.Names of separate mountain peaks and separate islands are used without any article: Etna, Vesuvius, Elbrus, Everest, Cuba, Cyprus

6.Names of bays and peninsulas take no article. Hudson Bay, Mexican Bay, Kamchatka, Scandinavia, Taimir

The definite article is used if the word “peninsula” itself is used. the Balkan Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula, the

Scandinavian Peninsula

7.Names of deserts generally take the definite article. the Sahara Desert, the Gobi, the Kara-Kum, the Kalahari

8.No article is used with the names of stations, airports and bridges. Victoria Station, Gatwick, Vnukovo Airport

9.Geographic names that generally don’t take any article may be used:

1) with the definite article when there is a limiting attribute: The Russia of the 21st century will be very different from the Russia of the 20th century.

The definite article is necessary, if a geographic name is in the plural. The two Americas have a great variety of climatic zones.

The definite article is used in the combinations of the type: the City of New York, the Cape of Good Hope

3)with the indefinite article when there is a descriptive attribute, or if it is implied: It was a new Russia that he found on his return.

The Use of Articles with Proper Names

1. There is no article with names of universities, colleges and

schools.: Moscow University, Oxford University, Trinity College, King’s College, Heaton Manor School,

2.Names of theatres, museums, picture galleries, concert halls, cinemas, clubs and hotels are used with the definite article: the Bolshoi Theatre, the Opera House

3.Names of famous trains, ships, yachts and boats are used with the definite article. the Orient Express, (the) Titanic, the Sedov

4.Names of English and American newspapers are generally used with the definite article. the Daily Telegraph, the Independent, the Times

Names of foreign newspapers take no article: Le Monde, Moskovski Komsomolets

Names of magazines as a rule take no article (though it is possible). Times, House Beautiful, Punch, the Spectator

5.Names of months and days of the week are usually used without any article. January, February, Monday, Tuesday

6.Names of most organizations and political parties are used with the definite article. the Kremlin, the Senate, the Capitol, the Government

7.Names of languages are used without any article unless the noun “language” is mentioned. English, French,

Japanese

8.Names of sport events take the definite article. the Olympic Games, the World Cup, the World Championship

No article is used if a geographic name is used to indicate some sport competition. Wimbledon (tennis), Luzhniki (football), Ascot and Epsom (horse races), Henley (rowing)

9.Names of musical groups are used with the definite article if the noun is in the plural. the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Eurythmics, the Supremes, the Cardigans

In other cases no article is used. Queen, ABBA, Gorky Park, Genesis, A-Ha

10.Names of highways (motorways) and roads generally take the definite article. the Al, the M3, the New Seattle Highway

11.Names of internationally known prizes take the definite article. the Nobel Prize, the Booker Prize, the Pulitzer Prize

Вопрос 9. The Adjective. Its general characteristics, the word order and the Degrees of Comparison. Substantivized Adjectives.

Adjective -is a notional part of speech which modifies the noun.

Can express:

1)qualities(large, modern, quite);

2)physical and emotional states(cold, busy, friendly, happy); 3)origin(Asian, Russian);

4)opinions(excellent, fantastic, cool); 5)frequency(weekly, daily, regular)

Morphological Classification : 1)Simple(young ,new, fresh);

2) Derived(careful, woody, rainy); 3)Compound(well-known, much-praised, man-made)

Adg. fall into 2 groups:

1)Qualitative-denote properties of a substance directly(great, calm, gold, beautiful);

2)relative-describe properties of a substance through relation to some material (woolen, wooden, golden, cotton, glass, plastic, metal) ;To place(Italian, European); To time (ancient, contemporary)

The usual word order is: Demonstrative (that, this, a/an)-Opinion (pretty, ugly)-Value (expensive, good)- Size-Age-Shape-Colour-Origin(British)-Material(wooden, plastic)-Temperature( cold, hold)-Purpose( washing machine) – Noun

Degrees of Comparison:

1)the Positive DoC ( good, bad;

2)the Comparative DoC (better, worse, smaller, more beautiful); 3)the Superlative DoC (the best, the worst)

The comparative and superlative DoC are formed in the :