ПК 1 Англ яз 3,4 семестры / Course of Grammar

1)Synthetic (суф-кс - er, -est Example: fine-finer-finest);

2)Analytic (more, the most Example: difficultmore difficultthe most difficult);

3)Suppletive (good-better-the best; little-less-the lest)

Искл (можно и 2 и 3): angry, clever, common, cruel, friendly, gently, handsome, narrow, pleasant, polite, quite, simple.

Substantivized Adj:

1)All the persons possessing some common quality or feature as a group (the old, the young)

2)Names of nations ending in –sh, -ch, -ss

3)Abstract notions: the beautiful, the unbelievable...)

4)Adj. in the following prepositional set-phrases (in the negative, to the quick)

Вопрос 10. The Adverb. Its general characteristics, place in the sentence and the Degrees of Comparison. Adverbs having two forms different in meaning.

Adverb is the part of speech which determines the character of the action.

Semantic groups:

1)place (here, there, away, far);

2)time and frequency (now, then, again, always, still, today, once, twice, never, ago, ever, just, yesterday, already, sometimes, yet, later, often, usually);

2)Manner (together, well, fast, hard, quietly);

3)Degree (very, really, too, exactly, right, pretty, more, relatively, slightly, almost, thoroughly, completely, basically);

4)Stance (your attitude towards what is said): ( absolutely, of course, probably, really, actually, mainly, (un)fortunately, curiously, frankly, honestly, seriously, personally, surely, worryingly, interestingly)

Morphological Classification:

1)Simple adverb-are single words that aren’t formed from compounds (fast, very, quite, well, yet);

2)Compound-consist of 2 or more elements (sometimes, nowhere, anyway, whenever);

Adj (early, late, high, past, far, little, much, near, straight, wrong)

Degrees of Comparison:

1)Synthetic DoC (fast-faster-the fastest);

2)Analytical DoC (beautifullymore beautifullyth’e most beautifully);

3)Suppletive (well, badly, much, little, far)

Вопрос 11. The Verb. Its general characteristics and categories.

The verb

Is notional PoS which identifies actions

Forms of verb : Finite and non-finite forms

I.Finite forms (categories)-конечная форма

1.Person-лицо

2.Number-количество

3.Tense-время

4.Aspect-аспекты

5.Voice-залог

6.Mood-наклонение

Finite forms have synthetic functions of verbs. It can be predicates

Non-finite form –не конечная форма

1.The Infinitive (to be)

2.The Gerund (swimming)

3.Participle 1 (swimming)- причастие наст.вр

4.Participle 2 (worked,brought,seen)-причастие прош.вр

II.Synthetic and analytical forms

Synthetic form: are built by the help of additional word. ( swim-swam, sing-song, read-reading)Analytical form: are built with the help of additional word. They usually have 2 or more

compounds. (I will be doing; I am speaking)

Classification of verbs:

1.Regular and irregular verbs

2.Based on the lexical meaning and functions in the sentence of verb

Notional verbs

-All have lexical meaning

-They can have an independent functions in the sentence ( to do, to have, to play)

Structural verbthey can’t have an independent functions

1.Modal-Модальные

2.Link ( she seemed tired)

3.Auxiliary( have you…I don’t have )-Вспомогательные

Grammatical categories :

1. Tense – indicate the time of the actions

1)Nominative Case- именительный падеж : I, he she, they, we, you 2)Objective Case- Объектный падеж : me, him, her, them, it, us, you

3.Number -in the system of pronouns can be expressed in different ways:

Singular formthis, that, myself, herself

Plural formthese, those, ourselves, themselves

Groups of pronouns:

1.Personal: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they

2.Possessive: me, your, his, her, its, our, your, their mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs

3.Demonstrative: it, this, these, that, those, same, such

4.Interrogative: who (whom), whose, which, what (in questions)

5.Relative: who (whom), whose, which, that (in attributive clauses)

6.Conjunctive: who (whom), whose, which, what (in diff erent subordinate clauses)

7.Self-pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

8.Reciprocal: each other, one another

9.Negative: no, nobody (no one), none, nothing (in negative sentences)

10.Indefinite: some, any, no (and their compounds), all, both, each, every (and its compounds), other, another, one, much, many, (a) little, (a) few

Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns have two cases — the Nominative Case and the Objective Case.

When a personal pronoun is a subject, or a predicative of the sentence, it is used in the Nominative Case in official, formal style.

In informal, colloquial style the use of the objective case of the personal pronoun has become standard in Modern English.

The Objective Case of the personal pronoun is used after such prepositions as between, up, but (in the meaning of except), except, without.

If the pronoun follows than or as we can use me, him, etc. (informal style) or I, he, etc. with a verb (more formal). Also in short answers.

Possessive Pronouns

The Possessive Pronouns have two forms — the Conjoint Form and the Absolute Form the Conjoint Form ( pronoun+noun ): my, your, his, her, its, our , their

the Absolute Form (pronoun — no noun): mine ,yours, his ,hers, — ,ours , theirs

The conjoint form of the pronoun is always followed by a noun.

The absolute form is used absolutely, without any noun and may have different functions in the sentence.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns have number — the singular and the plural. (this — these, that — those)

The general demonstrative meaning of these pronouns is near and distant reference in time and space.

This/these identify something near to the speaker, they are associated with “here”.

That/those identify something farther from the speaker; they are associated with “there”. (this room — that house; this year — that day)

Indefinite Pronouns

-some&any

Are used both with countable and uncountable nouns “indefinite number, amount or quality”- несколько Some is used mainly in + sentences. It’s used in ? sent. With polite offers or suggestions( Would you like some tea?)

It’s used in “–“ “sentences when the negation doesn’t involve the noun with some (some of your answer are correct, but some aren’t)

Any is used mainly in “?” and “-“ sent. In the meaning of любой, всякий (Any day is fine for me. Any child knows it)

-One

1.Stands for people when we talk in general( One should always listen to the teacher)

2.Vague time ( one day= однажды)

3. To avoid repetition ( My house is the first one on the left)

4. “only”, “single”( He’s the one man to help me)

-Much, many ,a lot of

Much with uncountable Many with countable A lot of with both

-A few/a little (несколько, немного) Few-fewer-fewest

Little-less-least

-Each/Every + sing count nouns

Every child got a present. Each got what he had wanted . Every- for the individual as a member of some groups Each- the separate individual

-Either/Neither

Alternative between 2 thigs or person

It’s either you or me. Neither you her me is interested

-All/both/half/(a/the) whole All of you are my students-все

Both of us are interested in this matterОба Half the cake is already eaten -Половина

I read the whole book in one evening -Весь, целый The whole is more emphatic than all.

Other-the other

We’ve got other plans for the weekend (in general)- другой

She’s got strange eyes: one is blue, the other is green – другой ( but out of two)

Others-the Others

Some people like cats, others prefer dogs –другие (in general)

Only 6 students are present today. Where are the others? - Остальные, другие

Self-Pronouns (Reflexives)

Personal – I, you we, they, he, she, it

Self-pronouns-myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves, himself, herself, itself

1.A reflexive pronoun can be used in the sentence as an object, attribute, predicative, an adverbial modifier

2.The Russian reflexive meaning (ся) can be expressed in English by:

1)the construction “verb + oneself”. The audience laughed itself stupid

2)the verb in the active voice. They met, but soon parted

3)the verb in the passive voice. The house is being built in the country.

4)phrasal verbs and phraseological units like: to ask for something, to take the trouble of doing something, to back down, to be back, can’t help doing, it goes without saying, etc. You are asking for trouble, my boy

3.An emphatic self-pronoun should be placed after the word it emphasizes or at the end of the sentence. He himself told me about it.

Interrogative (Question) Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns who? what? which? whose? are used, unsurprisingly, to ask questions.

The pronoun who can be subject or object: Who teaches you? Who does she teach?

The objective form of the interrogative pronoun whom? is now rarely used except in formal style, especially in the pattern preposition + whom. Compare: To whom should I apply? Who should I apply to?

Although the interrogative who is much more common than the objective form whom, still whom should be used in the cases like: There was a man whom nobody knew.

Relative and Conjunctive Pronouns

Pronouns who(m), which, whose, that are used to join ideas, usually on the following pattern:

NOUN + INFORMATION ABOUT THE NOUN

When the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in the last sentence, the pronoun is usually omitted. : Physics is a subject I find difficult

That or who are used for people; that or which for things; whose for both things and people.

Reciprocal Pronouns

Each other and one another express a mutual relation ship between the entities.

Each other is used for 2 people

One another is used for more than 2 people

Билет 13. The Numeral and its classification. The peculiar use of the Numeral. Reading the numerals: fractions and decimal numbers.

Numeral

The numeral is a part of speech denoting number or order.

I.Numerals may be used in the sentence in the function of:

1.an attribute : Ten people are wanted for the job. The second song was a great hit.

2.a predicative : My son is twenty and my daughter is twenty-two.

3.the subject, an object or an adverbial modifier when substantivized: Seven is a lucky number. The two left the office early

II.Numerals fall into cardinals and ordinals.

1.Cardinal numerals are used in counting and answer the question “How many?” : She has three questions to ask. He caught four fish yesterday.

All cardinal numerals may become substantivized and turn into nouns. : Take this actress. At sixty seven she’s still a size eight.

Mind that if the numerals hundred, thousand, million are modified by another numeral, they take no plural ending: five hundreds of people – five hundred people . Three thousands of children – three thousand children

We count: by tens, by hundreds, by thousands, also by the hundred, by the thousand: The child learned to count by tens.

Remember the following idioms with numerals: to be dressed to the nines, to be on cloud nine (with joy, happiness), to be in seventh heaven, to be at sixes and sevens…, on all fours.

2. Ordinal numerals denote order or position and answer the question “Which?”

Most of them are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix -th (sixth, seventh, etc.), except first, second, and third.

Ordinal numerals which modify nouns are usually preceded by the definite article: The distance is nothing; it is only the first step that is difficult

The indefinite article may also be used with the ordinal numeral. In such cases the meaning will be

“an additional one”, “one more”. : He opened a second beer. She accepted the offer without a second thought.

Remember some set phrases of the kind: a first night, a first love, a first-class college, a second-rate stamp, a first step, etc. : The young people met at a first night of “Hamlet”.

III.Fractional numbers.

In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal numeral and the denominator is an ordinal (used as a noun):

two-thirds, three-sixths. : Decimal fractions: 1.62 = one, point six, two.

2. zero (['zɪərəʊ]) used in science, for example, in temperatures — –15 C = minus fifteen degrees or fifteen degrees below zero

3.O ([əʊ]) used in telephone numbers — 01–500–3026 = O one — five double O— three O two six

4.nil or nothing used in scores in such games as football — 2 : 0 = the score was two nothing or two nil

V.1. Books use various numbering systems, including Roman numerals: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, etc. for 1–10.

2.M = 1000, D = 500, C = 100, L = 50, X = 10, V = 5, I = 1.

3.Dates on monuments are also sometimes written in Roman, e. g. 1985 would be MCMLXXXV, where M = 1000

(CM = 1000 – 100 = 900), L = 50, XXX = 30 (i. e. 3*10), and V = 5.

Билет 14. The English Sentence. Types of Sentences according to the aim of communication and to their structure. The Compound and the Complex Sentence.

I.Classification of sentences.

1) A declarative sentence or declaration (Повестовательное), the most common type, commonly makes a statement

I have to go to work

Порядок слов Подл+сказуемое+доп+обстоятельство

2)An imperative sentence or command (Повелительные) tells someone to do something (and if done strongly may be considered both imperative and exclamatory)-commands, requests

Go to work! Do it!

3)An exclamatory sentence (Восклицательные) or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of statement expressing emotion

I’m so glad to see you!

4)An interrogative sentence (Вопросительные) or question is commonly used to request information

Do I have to go to work?

But sometimes not, so this is a rhetorical question (To be or not to be?)

1.General question (общий вопрос)

общий вопрос используется в ситуациях, когда необходимо получить основную, общую информацию.

Do you like movies? — Тебе нравятся фильмы?

Ответить на General можно только yes or no.

2. Special question

Специальные вопросы в английском языке задаются для получения дополнительной информации. На первом месте всегда стоит специальное вопросительное слово:

what? — что? какой? why? — почему? where? — где? куда? how? — как?

how long? — как долго? which? — который? who? — кто?

when? — когда?

Where do you have vacation every summer?- I have vacation in London.

3.Alternative questions. It means choice.

Do you learn Eng or German?

4.Special question to the subject

Вопросы к подлежащему или к его определению всегда начинаются с вопросительных местоимений:

Who — кто What — что

Which — который

Whose – чей

Who knows the answer?

5.A tag questions (Разделительный вопрос)

You are happy, aren’t you?

II.Types of sentences by structure

According to their structure sentences may be divided into Simple, Compound, Complex.

1.Простые предложения. (Simple)

Ex: Life is wonderful. Time is short

Simple consists from unextended (нераспространенные) and extended (распространенные)

1)Unextended- a sentence which consists only of a subject and a predicate

The girl writes. Девушка пишет. (простое предложение считается нераспространенным)

2)Extended-had some secondary parts (может быть 2 гл.чл.пред-я)

The attractive girl writes a text-message. Привлекательная девушка пишет смс-сообщение. (распространенное предложение)v

2. Compound sentences – сложносочиненные предложения. Consists of 2 or more coordinated simple sentences

Ex: The night was warm, and we walked to the sea.

3. Complex sentence – сложноподчиненные предложения. Consists of a principal (independent) clause and of one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses

Ex: Nobody knows when she’ll come back

The composite Sentence

A composite sentence consists of two or more sentences (clauses) joined together. The relationship between the clauses may have the character of coordination or of subordination (Взаимосвязь между пунктами может носить характер координации или подчинения). Accordingly, there are compound and complex sentences. (Соответственно есть Сложносочиненные и сложноподчиненные предложения)

The Compound Sentence (Сложносочиненное)

The Compound sent. Consists of 2 or more clauses which are synthetically independent of each other as they are equal in rank. (Сложносочиненные предложения состоят из 2 или более предложений, которые синтетически независимы друг от друга, поскольку они равны по рангу.) They’re usually joined either asyndetically (without a connective conjunction) or syntactically (with a conjunction)

Ex: It was a dark night, the stars were bright in the sky (Asyndetically)

Ex: It was a dark night and the stars were bright in the sky (Syntactically)

Which Conjunctions are used in the compound sentence?

1.Coordinating (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet, still, otherwise, therefore)

Ex: Max hated his job, but he couldn’t offord to quite

2.Correlative (both-and; either-or; neither-nor; not only-but also)

Ex: Wanda wanted not only fame and riches, but she also dreamt of love

The complex sentence (Сложноподчиненное)

Is a composition of 2 (or more clauses), one of which is the main (principal-главным) clauses and the other is the subordinate clauses (придаточным)

Subordinate clauses are joined to the main clauses ones by means of conjunctions, conjunctive words, asyndetically and by means of the sequence of tenses. (Придаточные предложения соединяются с главными предложениями с помощью союзов, соединительных слов, асиндетически и с помощью последовательности времен.)

A conjunction or a conjunctive word?

Conjunctions differ from conjunctive words in the following: they’re not members of the sentence while the conjunctive words play some function in the subordinate clause. (Союзы отличаются от соединительных слов следующим: они не являются членами предложения, в то время как соединительные слова выполняют определенную функцию в придаточном предложении.)

Ex: He said (that) he had seen the show (conjunction)

Ex: He said that was a mistake (conjunctive word)

Compound-Complex Sentence

A sentence can have more than one main clause and more than one subordinate clause. (Предложение может содержать более одного главного предложения и более одного придаточного предложения.)

Compound-complex sentences help us express longer more complicated thoughts, with more parts than other sentences. (Сложносочиненные предложения помогают нам выражать более длинные и сложные мысли с большим количеством частей, чем в других предложениях.)

Ex: I feel tired if I stay up, but I can’t fall sleep, if I go to bed.

Билет 15. The Word Order in the English sentence. The Inversion.

Word Order in English Declarative Sentences

Subject+ predicate+ object+ An Adverbal modifier

Grammatical inversion is obligatory in interrogative sentences, in which the auxiliary or the modal verb should be placed before the subject.

Ex: Is that all right? Will that do? Do you like it?

Has he phoned? Can you help us? Must we do it?

Emphatic inversion helps to make our speech more expressive. It is possible:

1. if the sentence opens with some emotional adverbial modifier, placed at the head of the sentence like: not for the world, not for love or money, not for the life of me, not for anything, in vain, so, vainly, little, never (again), at no time, on no account, under no circumstances, not until, in no way, (how) little, nowhere. Such words and phrases have either negative or restrictive meaning and the inversion is partial.

But: if the predicate is a simple verbal one, the auxiliary “do” in the required form should be used.

2.if there are constructions like: hardly … when, scarcely... when, no sooner… than, in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time. The inversion is partial.

3.if a long adverbial phrase is placed at the beginning of the sentence.

4.if the adverbs here and there, now and then, such are at the beginning of the sentence and are followed by a noun (full inversion).

But: if the subject is a pronoun, the inversion is partial.

5.if such adverbs of place as away, up, down, in, out, off… are stressed.

6.if an auxiliary or a modal verb is repeated to apply the preceding statement to a new subject. But: there is no inversion if the statement refers to the same subject.