942

GERUND -ING FORM

With before, and after + gerund the subject must be the same in both clauses.

QUESTION TAGS

With a positive sentence, you use a negative tag. He's late, isn't he? With a negative sentence, you use a positive tag. He isn't late, is he?

The tag uses the auxiliary verbs, e.g. is, are, was, were, have, can, do, does, did. 1In questions beginning with I'm, the negative tag is aren't I . e.g. I'm late, aren't I? 2Question tags are often used in remarks about the weather, e.g. It's a lovely day, isn't it?

Question tags are used to: check and confirm facts

express surprise

MODAL VERBS

The following modal verbs are used in this book:

can, could, shall, should, ought to, must, may, might, will would, need

1.The form of the modal is the same with each pronoun, e.g. I/you/he/they can't sing.

2.Modals always come before the main verb in positive and negative sentences, e.g. I must go.

3.Questions are formed by inverting the subject and the modal, e.g. Where shall we go?

4.The negative is formed by putting not (n't) immediately after the modal verb, e.g. I mustn't/couldn't/ shouldn't. The exception is the modals will (negative = won't) and shall (negative = shan't).

Have to is used instead of must in future and past tenses, e.g. she'll have to, she had to.

211

CAN

In this book can is used to:

The infinitive of can (ability) is to be able to, e.g. If you go sailing, you must be able to swim.

212

1 Have to is used to talk about duties and obligations.

2 Note that we use do/does/did to make the negative and question forms of have to, e.g. He doesn't have to go. Do they have to go? You cannot say: he hasn't to go, or have they to go.

3Don't have to/Doesn't have to mean the same as needn't, i.e. there is no obligation to do something..

4Had to is the past tense form of have to. have got to and must.

5The use of have to often suggests that someone else is telling you what to do.

1 Allowed to is used to talk about permission, rules and laws. 2 To be allowed to is the passive form of the verb to allow.

3 Allowed to cannot usually be used with the impersonal pronoun it, i.e. you cannot say: It is allowed to smoke but it can be used with the impersonal pronoun you, e.g. You are allowed to smoke.

Used to is used to:

talk about past habits I used to speak Punjabi at home but 1 don't now. talk about past situations We didn't use to have a washing machine.

214

1.When the tense of the main reporting verb is in the past, the tense of the reported speech is changed.

2.When the tense of the main reporting verb is in the present, there is no change of tense in the reported speech.

3.That can be used after the main reporting verb, e.g. He said (that) he wanted to go home.

1Tense changes in reported questions are the same as in reported statements. 2The word order of the question in reported questions always changes, e.g. 'Where are you going?' - He asked me where I was going.

3The auxiliary verbs do/does/did are not used in reported questions.

INDIRECT REQUESTS AND INSTRUCTIONS

Positive

(Can/Could you) ask/tell her to phone back later (?) Negative

(Can/Could you) ask/tell her not to phone me at work (?)

In this type of sentence, ask and tell are followed by an object plus an infinitive.

215

REPORTED REQUESTS AND COMMANDS

Direct request

1Reported requests and commands are made by using verbs like: want, would like: ask and tell with an object and an infinitive.

2You cannot say: She wants that you. come.

3Note that tell must be followed by a personal direct object, e.g. / told her to go home.

You cannot say: I told to go home.

TIME CLAUSES IN THE PAST WITH WHEN, WHILE, AFTER AND BEFORE

When

When he arrived, he made a phone call.

In time clauses with while, after and before, the gerund with -ing can be used if the subject of both clauses is the same.

While

While we were camping in France, we saw a forest fire, or While camping in France, we saw a forest fire, but

While we were camping in France, he arrived. After

After driving/After he drove all night, he spent the day in bed. but After they left, he went to bed.

Before

Before going to bed/Before she went to bed, she had a shower, but Before they arrived, she made some coffee.

216

TIME CLAUSES IN THE FUTURE WITH WHEN AND AS SOON AS

When he arrives, I'll ask him.

As soon as she phones, I'll let you know.

Although the main verb is expressed by a will future, the verb in the time clause stays in the present simple tense.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES WITH IF (First conditional) If it rains, I'll take my umbrella.

If it rains, I won't come.

If it doesn't rain, we'll go to the beach.

1.The first conditional is similar to time clauses in the future with when and as soon as. The main verb is expressed by a will future but the verb in the if clause stays in the present simple.

2.If ... not is sometimes replaced by unless, e.g. / won't come unless you really need we.

CLAUSES OF CONTRAST WITH ALTHOUGH AND LINKING WORD HOWEVER

Two contrasting sentences and ideas can be linked with although, e.g. Although some still live in the outback, many now live in cities and towns.

The same idea can be expressed by using the linking word however at the beginning of the second sentence, e.g. Some still live in the outback. However, many now live in cities and towns.

CLAUSES OF RESULT WITH SO/SUCH . . . THAT I was so tired (that) 1 fell asleep.

It was such an amazing sight (that) I took a whole roll of film.

1.So and such are often followed by a clause of result beginning with that. 2.Sometimes the word that is omitted.

3.For differences between so and such see the Degree section of this Language review.

217

RELATIVE CLAUSES Non-defining relative clauses

Louisa, who's a nurse, lives in Oxford.

Merton College, which was founded in 1264, is one of the oldest Oxford colleges.

Isabel is at a language school, where she is studying for her FCE.

1.A non-defining relative clause adds more Information to that in the main clause.

2.If the relative clause is in the middle of a sentence, there are usually commas around it. If it is at the end, there is usually a comma before it.

Defining relative clauses with who, which and where

Robert Burns was a Scottish poet who wrote Auld Lang Syne. Tartan is a cloth which has a special criss-cross pattern. Harris is an island where they make tweed.

1.A defining relative clause defines the person, thing or place we are talking about.

2.There is no comma before a defining relative clause.

Relative clauses without who, that and which

A German girl (whom/that) I know went to India for a holiday last year. 1Who. that and which can be omitted if they are objects of the verb in the defining relative clause.

Whom is the object form of who. It is used in written English but rarely in spoken English.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

1.Comparative adjectives are formed:

-by adding -er to the end of shorter adjectives, e.g. high - higher.

-by putting more or less in front of longer adjectives, e.g. polluted - more polluted, expensive - less expensive.

2.Comparative adjectives can be modified by adding intensifiers such as much and a bit, e.g. much higher, a bit cheaper.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

Most comparative adverbs are formed by adding more to the adverb, e.g. more often, more frequently, more slowly. However, with short adverbs like hard, early, late, fast, the comparative is formed by adding -er, e.g. harder/earlier, later.

218

ayear

1.Adverbial phrases of frequency are usually positioned at the end of the relevant clause or sentence.

2.Adverbs of frequency are usually positioned before the main verb but after the verb to be.

STATIVE VERBS

Certain verbs (stative verbs) can be used before adjectives and combined with like before a noun.

219

ADJECTIVES WITH PREPOSITIONS

I’m good/bad/hopeless at cooking.

220