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1.Have to is used to talk about duties and obligations.

2.Note that we use do/does/did to make the negative and question forms of have to, e.g. He doesn't have to go. Do they have to go? You cannot say: he hasn't to go, or have they to go.

1.Don't have to/Doesn't have to mean the same as needn't, i.e. there is no obligation to do something..

2.Had to is the past tense form of have to. have got to and must.

3.The use of have to often suggests that someone else is telling you what to do.

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1 Allowed to is used to talk about permission, rules and laws. 2 To be allowed to is the passive form of the verb to allow.

3 Allowed to cannot usually be used with the impersonal pronoun it, i.e. you cannot say: It is allowed to smoke but it can be used with the impersonal pronoun you, e.g. You are allowed to smoke.

REPORTED STATEMENTS

1.When the tense of the main reporting verb is in the past, the tense of the reported speech is changed.

2.When the tense of the main reporting verb is in the present, there is no change of tense in the reported speech.

3.That can be used after the main reporting verb, e.g. He said (that) he wanted to go home.

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REPORTED QUESTIONS

Tense changes in reported questions are the same as in reported statements. The word order of the question in reported questions always changes, e.g. 'Where are you going?' – He asked me where I was going.

The auxiliary verbs do/does/did are not used in reported questions.

INDIRECT REQUESTS AND INSTRUCTIONS

Positive

(Can/Could you) ask/tell her to phone back later (?)

Negative

(Can/Could you) ask/tell her not to phone me at work (?)

In this type of sentence, ask and tell are followed by an object plus an infinitive.

1 Reported requests and commands are made by using verbs like: want, would like: ask and tell with an object and an infinitive.

2 You cannot say: She wants that you. come.

3 Note that tell must be followed by a personal direct object, e.g. / told her to go home.

You cannot say: I told to go home.

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TIME CLAUSES IN THE PAST WITH

WHEN, WHILE, AFTER AND BEFORE

When

When he arrived, he made a phone call.

In time clauses with while, after and before the gerund with -ing can be used if the subject of both clauses is the same.

While

While we were camping in France, we saw a forest fire, or While camping in France, we saw a forest fire, but

While we were camping in France, he arrived.

After

After driving/After he drove all night, he spent the day in bed. but After they left, he went to bed.

Before

Before going to bed/Before she went to bed, she had a shower, but Before they arrived, she made some coffee.

TIME CLAUSES IN THE FUTURE WITH

WHEN AND AS SOON AS

When he arrives, I'll ask him.

As soon as she phones, I'll let you know.

Although the main verb is expressed by a will future, the verb in the time clause stays in the present simple tense.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES WITH IF (First conditional)

The first conditional is similar to time clauses in the future with when and as soon as. The main verb is expressed by a will future but the verb in the if clause stays in the present simple.

If … not is sometimes replaced by unless, e.g. / won't come unless you really need we.

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CLAUSES OF CONTRAST WITH

ALTHOUGH AND LINKING WORD HOWEVER

Two contrasting sentences and ideas can be linked with although, e.g. Although some still live in the outback, many now live in cities and towns.

The same idea can be expressed by using the linking word however at the beginning of the second sentence, e.g. Some still live in the outback. However, many now live in cities and towns.

CLAUSES OF RESULT WITH SO/SUCH . . . THAT

I was so tired (that) 1 fell asleep.

It was such an amazing sight (that) I took a whole roll of film.

1.So and such are often followed by a clause of result beginning with that. 2.Sometimes the word that is omitted.

3.For differences between so and such see the Degree section of this Language review.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

Non-defining relative clauses

Louisa, who's a nurse, lives in Oxford.

Merton College, which was founded in 1264, is one of the oldest Oxford colleges.

Isabel is at a language school, where she is studying for her FCE.

1.A non-defining relative clause adds more Information to that in the main clause.

2.If the relative clause is in the middle of a sentence, there are usually commas around it. If it is at the end, there is usually a comma before it.

Defining relative clauses with who, which and where

Robert Burns was a Scottish poet who wrote Auld Lang Syne. Tartan is a cloth which has a special criss-cross pattern. Harris is an island where they make tweed.

1.A defining relative clause defines the person, thing or place we are talking

about.

2.There is no comma before a defining relative clause.

Relative clauses without who, that and which

A German girl (whom/that) I know went to India for a holiday last year. Who, that and which can be omitted if they are objects of the verb in the

defining relative clause.

Whom is the object form of who. It is used in written English but rarely in spoken English.

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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Comparative adjectives are formed:

by adding -er to the end of shorter adjectives, e.g. high – higher.

by putting more or less in front of longer adjectives, e.g. polluted – more polluted, expensive – less expensive.

Comparative adjectives can be modified by adding intensifiers such as much and a bit, e.g. much higher, a bit cheaper.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

Most comparative adverbs are formed by adding more to the adverb, e.g. more often, more frequently, more slowly. However, with short adverbs like hard, early, late, fast, the comparative is formed by adding -er, e.g. harder/earlier, later.

Adverbial phrases of frequency are usually positioned at the end of the relevant clause or sentence.

Adverbs of frequency are usually positioned before the main verb but after the verb to be.

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PREPOSITIONS

During

He died during the war.

During a fit of madness, he cut off his ear.

During is used with a noun which says when something happened, hot how long.

It cannot be used in the same way as for.

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REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

myself ourselves yourself yourselves herself themselves himself

itself

Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object are the same person, e.g.

I had to live in conflict with myself. He shot himself.

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