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FROM THE HISTORY OF BUILDING

The history of building extends as far back as that of civilization itself. The purposes of modern buildings differ widely, but all of them originate from the efforts of primitive men to protect themselves from stormy weather, wild animals and human enemies. In prehistoric times men looked for protection under the branches of trees, some covered themselves with skins of animals to protect themselves from cold and rain; others settled in caves.

Primitive building required practically no tools and depended upon the more piling up of stones or sun-dried bricks for walls and the using of branches for roofs. The invention of tools permitted the cutting of stones and timbers. The later use of finer tools with the transition to bronze, is marked by the Egyptian pyramids and temples, while the coming of the Iron Age brought tools which made possible the development of carpentry and fine accurate stone cutting. Most of the buildings of old times was based upon the column and beam method of construction.

Great changes in building methods together with numerous mechanical inventions and the appearance of new materials (such as concrete) resulted in great buildings being erected during the following centuries. The middle of the 19^th century, with the use of steam and electricity saw deep changes in the entire range of building.

The modern building is designed by an architect who calls to his assistance consulting and technical services for the various mechanical and engineering factors, which enter into it.

Taken as a whole, modern building constitutes a vital element of national industry. The great problem still ahead of building is to help satisfy such urgent social needs as minimum-cost housing and the elimination of excessive city congestion.

Vocabulary

assistance – помощь

beam - балка

brick – кирпич

carpentry - плотничество

cave – пещера

concrete – бетон

construction – строительство

foundation – фундамент

invention – изобретение

primitive – первобытный

roof - крыша

skin - шкура

stone – камень

timber – лесоматериал

to cover – покрывать

to cut – обрабатывать, резать

to depend upon– зависеть от

to design – проектировать

to extend – расширять, простираться

to permit – позволять

to require - требовать

to satisfy – удовлетворять

tool - инструмент

transition - переход

urgent – настоятельный

use – применение

vital - жизненный

CIVIL ENGINEERING

The word "engineering" means the art of designing, constructing, or using engines. But this word is now applied in a more extended sense. It is applied also to the art of executing such works as the objects of civil and military architecture, in which engines or other mechanical appliances аrе used.

Engineering is a science which deals with design, construction and operation of structures, machines, engines and other devices used in industry and everyday life. The most widely used Russian equivalents are: техника, строительство, машиностроение, инженерное дело.

Engineering is divided into manу branches. The most important of them аrе: civil, mеchanicаl, electrical, nuclear, mining, military, marine, and sanitary еnginеering. While the definition "civi1 engineering" dates back only two centuries, the profession of civil engineer is as old as civilized life.

The term "engineering" is a modern one. However, the art of building houses, palaces, temples, pyramids and other structures was known as far as many thousand years ago. Now we call it "civi1 engineering". Up to about the middle of the 18th century there were two main branches of engineering-civil and military. The former included the building of houses, roads, bridges, etc.; the latter the building of fortifications and military devices.

But lаtеr there саmе а remarkable series of mechani­саl inventions, great discoveries in electrical science and atomic energy. It led to the diffеrеntiаtion of mechani­cal, electrical, nuclear engineering, etc. Architecture, which up to the 18th century had bееn considered а brаnсh of engineering had bесоmе a profession bу itself. Тhе term "civil engineering" has therefore two distinct meanings. In the widest and oldest sense it includes all non-military branches of engineering as it did two centures ago. But in its narrower, and at the present day morе correct sense, civil engineering includes mechani­cal engineering, electrical engineering, metallurgical, and mining engineering. Неге аrе some fields of civil engineering.

1. Housing, industrial, and agricultural construction.

2. Structural engineering which comprises the construction of all fixed structures with their foundations.

3. Тhе construction of highways and city streets and pavements.

4. The construction of railroads.

5. The construction of harbours and canals.

6. Hydraulic engineering which includes the construc­tion of dams and роwеr plants.

Nowadays, civil engineering may be spoken of as an important branch of national economy.

Vocabulary

civil engineering – гражданское строительство

mechanical engineering - машиностроение

nuclear engineering – ядерная техника

mining engineering – горное дело

military engineering – военно-инженерное дело

marine engineering – морское дело

may be spoken of as – можно назвать (считать)

branch – отрасль

design - проектировать, конструировать

device – прибор, устройство

meaning – значение

national economy – народное хозяйство

science - наука

structure – здание, сооружение

term - термин

to apply - применять

to include – включать

the former … the latter – первый …, последний (из двух упомянутых)