Verbs taking to-infinitive or -ing form without a change in meaning:

*begin, continue, intend, start + to-inf or -ing form.

We don't normally have two -ing forms together.

He began speaking/to speak.

*advise, allow, encourage, permit, require + object + to-inf.

She doesn't allow them to talk in class.

*advise, allow, encourage, permit, require + -ing form.

She doesn't allow talking in class.

*be advised, be allowed, be encouraged, be permitted, be required + to-inf.

They aren't allowed to talk in class.

*need, require, want + to-inf./-ing form/passive inf.

You need to wash the car.

Your car needs washing. Your car needs to be washed.

Verbs faking to-infinitive or -ing form with a change in meaning

1. forget + to-inf (= forget to do sth) He forgot to switch off the TV. forget + -ing form (= forget a past event) I'll never forget meeting Jane for the first time.

2. remember + to-inf (= remember to do sth) I hope you'll remember to tidy your room. remember + -ing form (= recall a past event) I don't remember him ever tidying up his room.

3. mean + to-inf (= intend to) She means to start a new life. mean + -ing form (= involve) I won't take the job if it means moving to Scotland.

4. go on + to-inf (= finish doing sth and start doing sth else; then; afterwards) She finished one letter and went on to write another. go on + -ing form (= continue) She went on writing till the early hours of the morning.

5. regret + to-inf (= be sorry to) I regret to inform you that your services are no longer required. regret + -ing form (= have second thoughts about sth already done) He regrets misbehaving.

6. would prefer + to-inf (specific preference) I'd prefer to see you in private. prefer + -ing form (in general) I prefer working on my own. prefer + to-inf + rather than + inf without to He prefers to paint the flat on his own rather than hire a professional.

7. try + to-inf (= do one's best; attempt) Try to eat less high-cholesterol food. try + -ing form (= do sth as an experiment) Try cutting down on fat. You might get thinner.

8. want + to-inf (= wish) I want to stop smoking. want + -ing form (= sth needs to be done) This room wants tidying up.

9. stop + to-inf (= pause temporarily) He stopped at the garage to have the tank filled. stop + -ing form (= finish; cease) He stopped behaving foolishly.

10. be sorry + to-inf (= regret) I'm sorry to tell you your flight has been cancelled. be sorry for + -ing form (= apologise for) He was sorry for hurting her feelings.

11. hate + to-inf (= hate what one is about to do) I hate to cut in, but you must see the manager. hate + -ing form (= feel sorry for what one is doing) I hate causing you so much inconvenience.

12. be afraid + to-inf (= be too frightened to do sth; hesitate) She was afraid to climb the tree. be afraid of + -ing form (= be afraid that what is referred to by the -ing form may happen) When she goes swimming, she's always afraid of being stung by jellyfish.

COMPLEX OBJECT (objective with the infinitive)

somebody	want(s), expect(s), wish, like, would like, hate, believe, suppose, know, think, understand, consider, find, allow	Noun, pronoun object: you us them him her me the man Mike	to do smth
	let(s) make(s)		do smth
	Verbs of perception: hear(s) see(s) feel(s) watch(es) notice(s)		do (doing) smth
My mother expects us to arrive early. I will make him do what he must do. She has never seen Galina Ulanova dance. I can hear Mary playing the piano next door.

Exclamations

Exclamations are used to express anger, fear, shock, surprise etc. They always take an exclamation mark (!). Some exclamations are: Oh dear!, Ah!, Oh!, Good gracious! etc.

* What + a(n) + (adjective) + singular countable noun

What a sweet baby!

* What + (adjective) + uncountable/plural noun

What utter nonsense! What beautiful paintings!

* How + adjective/adverb How tall he is! How quickly she walks!

* How + adjective + a(n) + noun How clever a boy! (not common)

* You + (adjective) + noun You lucky girl!

* such (a/an) + (adjective) + noun She's such an arrogant person!

* so + adjective/adverb She's so arrogant!

* adverb/adverbial particle + subject + verb of movement

Off the competitors went!

* Here/There + subject + verb Here she is!

(But when the subject is a proper noun, it follows the verb.

We say: Here is Ann!)

*interrogative - negative question at the beginning of the sentence Aren't they nice children!

Causative get and have

Causative get and have mean ‘ask, cause or persuade somebody to do something’ in the active form, and ‘arrange for somebody else to do something’ in the passive.

The active pattern is get + sb + to-infinitive

I’ll get my assistant to bring you the other pair of shoes.

She got her husband to cut the grass. (She persuaded her husband to cut me grass.)

or

have + sb + bare infinitive:

Shall I have my secretary send you the details?

The passive pattern is get/have + object + past participle:

I’m getting/having my house decorated at the moment.

You ought to get/have your blood pressure checked.

Get is more common in British English - have is now more formal except in some situations described below.

• Sometimes causative get/have suggests the need to deal with a difficulty: I’m afraid you'll have to get/have the whole house rewired.

• We use have in the passive when something unpleasant happens. Get is much less common than have in these situations:

I had my wallet stolen in the crowd. He had his car broken into last night.

• Sometimes when we use have, meaning depends on context:

We’ve had the bricks removed. (= either we arranged for somebody to take them, or somebody stole them)

• We use get, not have, when somebody else has to work on our behalf:

One of these days I’m going to get myself elected onto the committee.

We often use get + past participle meaning ‘become’:

She got dressed and went downstairs.

My dog got run over by a removal van.

*Make/have + object + bare infinitive are used to express that someone causes someone else to do something, but their meaning is slightly different.

He made Liz send a fax. (He insisted that Liz should send a fax)

He had Liz send a fax. (He asked Liz to send a fax.)

The verbs believe, expect, feel, hope, know, report, say, think etc

are used in the following passive patterns in personal and impersonal constructions.

* subject (person) + passive verb + to -inf (personal construction)

Doctors expect he will recover soon -

He is expected to recover soon.

* it + passive verb + that-clause (impersonal construction)

It is expected that he will recover soon.

Clauses

Sentences can consist of main and subordinate clauses.

Subordinate clauses can be:

* noun clauses: I know that he'll be a little late.

* relative clauses: Show me the pictures which you took.

* adverbial clauses (clauses of time, place, manner, reason, concession, purpose, result, comparison, condition)

He left early so as not to miss the bus.

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are introduced by:

a) relative pronouns, i.e. who, whom, whose, which or that

The man who/that stole the money.

That's the girl whose brother is a singer.

I read a book (which/that) was written by Samuel Johnson.

The cat (which/that) you saw lying on the sofa is my favourite one.

That's the coat the sleeves of which/whose sleeves are made of velvet.

b) relative adverbs i.e. when, where or why.

Time: when (= in/on/at which) 1982 was the year (when) I moved to Wales.

Place: where (= in/at/on/to which) That's the hotel where we spent our honeymoon.

Reason: why (= for which) That's the reason (why) they were celebrating.

We do not normally use prepositions before relative pronouns.

The house in which she lives is in the suburbs. (formal - not usual)

The house which she lives in is in the suburbs. (usual)

The house she lives in is in the suburbs. (more usual)

Clauses of Manner

* Clauses of manner are introduced by: as if/as though (after act, appear, be, behave, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste),

as, how, (in) the way, (in) the way that, the way in which, (in) the same way, (in) the same way as. Try to do it as I showed you.

* In clauses of manner introduced with as if/as though we can use were instead of was in all persons in formal English.

She acts as if she were/was in charge of the project.

Note how the tense forms are used after as if/as though:

* as if/as though + any tense form (showing probability/similarity - how sb/sth seems)

She feels as if she has got a temperature. (She may have a temperature.)

She sounded as if she had a cold. (She may have had a cold.)

* as if/as though + Past Simple/Past Continuous (unreal in the present)

She acts as if she knew everything. (but she doesn't)

* as if/as though + Past Perfect (unreal in the past)

She felt as if they had misjudged her. (but they hadn't)

Clauses of Time

*Clauses of time are introduced by: after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, by the time (= before, not later than), every time, immediately, just as, once, the moment (that), until/till (= up to the time when), when, while etc.

The castaway had to wait five years until he was rescued.

*Clauses of time follow the rule of the sequence of tenses; that is, when the verb of the main clause is in a present or future form, the verb of the time clause is in the present form, and when the verb of the main clause is in a past form, the verb of the time clause is in a past form too. Note that will/ would are never used in a clause of time.

I'll cook dinner as soon as I've finished washing up.

She left her job as soon as she got married.

* When the time clause precedes the main clause, a comma is used. When the time clause follows, no comma is used.

By the time he arrived, she had left. But: She had left by the time he arrived.

Clauses of Place

Clauses of place are introduced by: where, wherever, everywhere, anywhere etc.

She’ll follow him wherever he goes.

Will/Would are never used in clauses of place.

Everywhere Joan goes she gets into trouble.

Clauses of Reason

* Clauses of reason are introduced by: as, because, for, on the grounds that, the reason for, the reason (why) etc.

As they had no money to buy a ticket, they hitchhiked.

* Because usually answers a why-question.

"Why didn't you invite him?" "Because I don't like him."

For (= because) always comes after a comma in written speech or a pause in oral speech.

I didn't invite him, for I don't like him. (very formal)

* Because of/Due to + noun/-ing form.

Because of the train strike, no one could get to work last Tuesday.

Because of/Due to + the fact that ...

Due to the tact that he had no money, he was unable to buy any Christmas presents.

Clauses of Result

Clauses of result are introduced by: that (after such/so ...), (and) as a result, (and) as a conse­quence, consequently, so etc.

It was such bad weather that we stayed in.

* such a(n) + (adjective) + singular countable noun.

He is such a rude person that nobody likes him.

* such + (adjective) + uncountable/plural noun.

It was such lovely scenery that we took lots of photos.

* such + a lot of + noun.

There were such a lot of people on the train that we couldn't get on.

* so + adjective/adverb.

She drives so carelessly that she's bound to have an accident.

* so + few/little/many/much + noun.

He had so much luggage that he couldn't carry it.

* so + adjective + a(n) + noun.

It's so hot a day that everyone is going to the beach. (not usual)

* as a result/therefore/consequently/so + clause.

The cinema was crowded so we left.

Expressing Purpose - Clauses of Purpose

Purpose is expressed with:

* to/in order to/so as to + inf

She is studying to be a doctor.

* so that + can/will (present/future reference)

We'll have an early night so that we won't be tired tomorrow.

* so that + could/would (past reference)

He employed a detective so that he could find the murderer.

* with a view to/with the aim of + -ing form

They started saving up with a view to buying a car.

*for + noun/-ing form

She bought some cream for polishing silver.

* in case + Present (present/future reference)

I'll phone him in case he's forgotten the appointment.

* in case + Past (past reference)

He took a torch in case there was no light in the attic.

Negative Purpose is normally expressed with:

* so as not/in order not + to -inf

They spoke in whispers so as not to wake the children.

* so that + can't/won't (present/future reference)

I'll invite her so that she won't feel lonely.

* so that + couldn't/wouldn't (past reference)

They hid the letter so that he wouldn't find out the truth.

* for fear/lest + might/should

They put on their life jackets for fear they might drown.

* for fear of sth/doing sth

He left his money in the hotel safe for fear of losing it.

* prevent + noun/pronoun + (from) + -ing form

They put up notices to prevent people (from) walking on the grass.

* avoid + -ing form

He took a map to avoid getting lost.

Clauses of purpose follow the rule of the sequence of tenses.

She trains every day so that she can enter the competition.

She trained every day so that she could enter the competition.

Clauses of Contrast

Clauses of contrast (or concession) are used to express a contrast.

They are introduced with the following words/phrases:

but - although/even though/though - in spite of/despite - however - while/whereas - yet - nevertheless - on the other hand

* although/even though/though + clause

Although it snowed heavily, he came to the meeting.

Even though is more emphatic than although.

Though is informal and is often used in everyday speech.

It can also be put at the end of a sentence.

Although/Even though/Though it was summer, it was chilly.

It was chilly although/even though/though it was summer.

It was summer. It was chilly, though.

It snowed heavily. He came to the meeting, though.

* in spite of/despite + noun/-ing form

In spite of/Despite his qualifications, he couldn't get a job.

He couldn't get a job in spite of/despite (his) being qualified.

Despite his illness/being ill, he went to the party.

*In spite of/despite the fact that + clause

In spite of/Despite the fact that he was qualified, he couldn't get a job.

In spite of the fact that he was ill, he went to the party

* nevertheless/however + clause

A comma is always used after however/nevertheless.

The man fell off the ladder. However/Nevertheless, he wasn't hurt.

He has lots of experience; however, he didn't get the job.

*while/whereas/but/on the other hand/yet + clause.

It was cold, but she wasn't wearing a coat.

He worked hard, yet he failed to meet the deadline.

She is tall, while/whereas her brother is rather short.

Cars aren’t environmentally friendly.

On the other hand, bicycles are. /Bicycles, on the other hand, are.

yet (formal) /still

The fire was widespread, yet no property was damaged.

My car is old. Still, it is in very good condition.

*However/No matter how + adj/adv + subject (+ may) + verb.

However fast he runs, he can't beat Tom.

*adj/adv + though + subject + verb/(may + bare inf).

Clever though he is, his laziness caused him to fail the exam.

Much though I may want it, I can't afford a holiday this year.

*adj/adv + as + subject + verb. Skinny as he is, he eats a lot.

A comma is used when the clause of concession either precedes or follows the main clause.

Even though he was tired, he went to the party.

He went to the party, even though he was tired.

Here are some of the most common conjunctions used to introduce adverbial clauses:

Time	when, after, before, as, as soon as, by the time (that), once, since, until/till, wherever, while
Place	where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere
Manner	as, as if, as though
Comparison	than, as ... as
Reason	because, as, since
Purpose	so that, in order that, in case
Result	so ... that, such a ... that
Condition	if, unless, provided/providing (that), so/as long as
Contrast	although/though/even though, while, whereas, however, (+ much/good/badly), whatever, whenever, wherever

Note: We generally use the present simple to refer to the future in adverbial clauses of time and condition:

When/If I come to London, I'll come and see you.

and we use the present perfect in place of the future perfect:

When I've finished my dinner, I'll come and help you.