Metaphor

A metaphor is sometimes looked upon as an implied simile. Actually there are at least 3 main theories of metaphor.

Theories:

1. Substitution (replacement) theory - one word instead of another if we lack a lexical unit that nominates the object directly (a computer mouse)

2. Comparative theory

3. Interaction theory – the tenor and the vehicle interact and as a result some qualities of the vehicle are discarded and others are просеяны through our perception.

All the 3 theories do not deny, but compliment each other. Any notional part of speech can be used metaphorically. (The lawyers tripped each other on slippery precedents. Running their heads against walls of words. Дверь жалобно скрипнула.)

Like a simile metaphors may have a vehicle belonging to the same sphere of experience. (She'll make someone a nice husband).

Genuine: the clouds are crying. He spat out every word.

A metaphor can be simple or sustained (=prolonged): (The rose bush was) … splashing the darkness with great spilt stars pure white (D.H.Lawrence)

Metonymy

Is also based on association by contiguity – the tenor and the vehicle have really existing connections, the vehicle represents the tenor. Metonymy is based on a variety of principles:

1. mentioning a part for the whole (to live under the same roof) – synecdoche

2. characteristic feature for its owner (to be on friendly terms with such a pair of whiskers)

3. the container for the contained (the hall applauded)

4. the object for the doer (his prolific pen)

5. symbol for what it stands for (he ascended to the throne)

“is this the face that launched a thousand ships?”

“Love on his knees before beauty” - an emotion or attitude is mentioned instead of a person causing or expressing his emotions. (abstract instead of concrete)

There are cases when metaphor and metonymy for all their differences may sometimes converge within one image (волка ноги кормят, перекуем мечи на орала — плуг)

Epithet

is an attributive word or word combination which contains an expressive characteristic of the object it describes. Grammatically it is either an attribute or an adverbial modifier of manner. (the door screeched plaintively. It were Greeks who first spoke of epithets (epitheton necessarium – to distinguish the bearers of the same name, as an alternative to ordinals.

An epithet (Greek) is a descriptive word or phrase that has become a fixed formula (merry old England, the deep blue see)

The greatest function belongs to genuine epithets. They are often methaphoric (devouring time, spilt stars), but genuine as well as trite epithets can be non-metaphoric too. If they are heavy with emotive or expressive connotation (inconsolable grief, несметные богатства).

Epithets can be transferred vs. non-transferred. We have a transferred epithet when the emotion experienced by the speaker or character is ascribed to an inanimate object (he tossed on his sleepless pillow, we spent many merry hours there)

Associated – non-associated

an associated – is an attributive word which shares some semantic features with the object or phenomenon described (midnight dreary, we promise to give this matter our careful attention.

Structurally it can be represented by a single word or a word combination. Usually it is noun 1 of noun 2. (the ghost of a smile, his moon of a face, this scarecrow of a suit) sometimes can be a sentence / phrase epithet (a-don't-touch-me-or-I-shall-bite-you look)

Irony

is a device which is based on the contrast between the primary dictionary and contextual meaning. It consists in saying exactly the opposite what we mean. Usually we say a good thing, meaning criticism and sometimes it is vice versa. From gentle and friendly irony to acid, bitter one (A gentleman in a white waistcoat said he was a fool. Which was a capital way of raising his spirits and putting him quite at ease) Usually it's 1 or 2 words which bear the weight of irony and irradiate throughout the whole context, colouring it ironic. Sometimes we come across both gentle and bitter irony within 1 context, they converge enhancing each other. (he was keeping his birthday in the coal-cellar with a select part of two other young gentlemen, who … had been locked there for atrociously presuming to be hungry).

There is also such a phenomenon as dramatic irony. It can be found in the lines of the personage who attributes one m-ng to his words whereas the other characters and the readers interpret them in a totally different way. The speaker usually exposes himself to ridicule. (Madam, you had no taste when you married me Sheridan “School for scandal”) But dramatic irony is not always funny, it can be tragic (I will cleanse the city of the filthy thing which pollutes it.

Irony shouldn't be mixed up with sarcasm. It has no linguistic mechanism, so it's not a trope. It can't be friendly. It really means what it says, but it produces an effect by being placed in a context, which foregrounds the sarcasm. (they contracted with the waterworks to lay on an unlimited amount of water).