Соколова - теоретическая фонетика англ

3.3. Degrees of Word Stress

The syllables in a word are characterized by different degrees of prorni­ nence. Objectively, there are as many degrees of stress in a word as there are syllables. A. Gimson, for example, shows the following distribution of the degrees of stress in the word examination (Gimson, 1981). However, it is important to distinguish the degrees of stress, which are linguistically rele­

vant.

In English they generally distinguish three degrees (levels) of stress: pri­ mary (strong, main, principal), secondary (half-strong, half-stressed) and weak (unstressed). In the word hdmtndti6n the primary stress is the stron­ gest (marked 1), the secondary stress is second strongest (marked 2), all the other syllables (3, 4,5) are weak. So, all the other degrees ofstress are termed

weak.

American phoneticians (B. Bloch, G. Trager, H. Gleason) distinguish four contrastive degrees of word stress: primary, secondary, tertiary and weak. Tertiary stress does not show much difference from secondary stress, but it has a different placement in a word. It is generally associated with American English, where it marks the last but one syllable in the words with suffixes -ary, -ory, -ony (,revo'lutio,nary, 'dictio,nary, 'cere,mony). It is argued that the secondary stress precedes the primary stress and the ter­ tiary stress follows it. For example, in the verbs with the suffIxes -ate, -ize, _y tertiary stress can be observed (,demonst,rate, 'orga,nize, 'simplify). Some British linguists share this point of view, because there is a tendency to use a tertiary stress in a post-tonic syllable in the words with an unreduced vowel in the last syllable in British English (,black,board, 'demonst,rate, 're­

a,lize).

A. Gimson, for example, distinguishes four degrees of stress, which are realized mainly by the change of pitch, to be more exact, he describes four degrees of word accent: primary accent, marked by the last major pitch change in a word; secondary accent, marked by a non-final pitch change in a word; a minor prominence produced by the occurrence of a full vowel, but containing no pitch change; a non-prominent syllable con­ taining no pitch change and one of the vowels [I, U, a] (Gimson, 1981). According to J. C. Wells "tertiary stress is the location of a potential rhyth­ mic beat either after the primary stress or between the secondary and the

primary" (Wells, 1993).

However, in terms of teaching English as a foreign language the Brit­ ish conception of three degrees of word stress is more acceptable.

3.4. Placement of Word Stress

According to its placement in a word stress can be fixed and free. In lan­ guages with a fIXed stress the position of the word stress is restricted to a particular syllable in a multisyllabic word. For example, in French word stress is normally fixed on the last syllable of the word, in Finnish and Czech it falls on the first syllable, in Polish on the last but one syllable.

There is linguistic data that in 94% of 306 languages with fixed word stress the stress falls on final, penultimate (last but one) and initial syllable. This placement of word stress indicates the word boundaries and thus per­ forms the identificatory (demarkative) function (J. Laver, 1995; T. Shevchen­ ko,2006).

In languages with a free stress its location is not confined to a specific po­ sition in the word. In one word it may fall on the first syllable, in another on the second syllable, in the third word - on the last syllable and so on. To be more exact, stress can be placed on any syllable of the word. The number of languages with free word stress is relatively small: English, Russian, Italian, Greek, Spanish and some others (English - 'appetite, be'ginning, ba'lloon),

Russian - o3epo, nOi?oiJa, MOJlOKO).

In English (as well as in Russian) the word stress is not only free, but it is also shifting, which means that it can change its position in different forms of the word and its derivatives: 'contrast - con'trast, 'music - mu'sician, 'hab­

Admittedly it is difficult to predict the location of English word stress. Some linguists suppose that the speaker has to memorize the stress pattern of each word as it is learned. However, there exist some generalizations con­ cerning the placement of word stress which the native speaker of English makes unconsciously and stores in the mind (Ph. Carr, 1999; P. Roach, 2001). To define the position ofword stress in each individual word it is nec­ essary to take into account a number of factors:

-phonological structure of the syllables;

-the number of syllables in the word;

Stress fixing suffIXes determine the placement of stress on a particular syllable ofthe stem. SuffIXes -ion, -ic, -tty, -ial, -ive attract stress to the syl­ lable that precedes them, 1. e. the last syllable ofthe stem ('peifect - perfec­ tion, 'proverb - pro'verbial, 'curious cun"osity). Verbal suffix -ate in words of more than two syllables fixes the stress on the third syllable from the end

('operate).

Stress attracting suffIXes include such suffIXes as -ade, -eer, -ee, -esque, -ette (cru'sade, mounta'neer, refu'gee, ,ciga'rette, pictu'resque).

In some cases this factor is to be considered together with another one ­ the number ofsyllables in a word. For example, the verbal suffix -ate is stress attracting in the words containing two syllables (migrate), but in words con­ taining more than two syllables it is stress-fIXing; it fixes the stress on the third syllable from the end (com'municate).

Besides complex words we should also consider compound words. Com­ pounds contain more than one root or more than one word, but they function as one word. Compounds can be spelled in different ways: as one word (suit­ case), with a hyphen (good-tempered), or as two words (work day). According to P. Roach "the most familiar type ofcompound is the one which combines two nouns, and normally has the stress on the first element" (P. Roach, 200 I). This stress pattern can be observed in the following compounds: 'sunrise, 'type­ writer, 'greenhouse, 'bedroom. However, quite a number of compounds take stress on the second element: bad-'tempered, second-'class, North-'West, i/l­

'treat. Another typical stress pattern is: secondary stress on the first element + primary stress on the second element (t::lear-'cut).

British phoneticians (Ph. Carr, P. Roach) suggest a rule that sums up the most typical tendencies in the placement of word stress in compounds: stress goes on the first element if it is a noun ('wine glass, 'suitcase) and on the second element if the first is adjectival in meaning, in other words if it performs the function of an attribute (,heavy-'handed, .five-'finger, .first­ 'rate). It should also be mentioned that compounds can have only one pri­ mary stress (J. C. Wells), if there are more than one stressed syllables sec­ ondary stress might be used. "The model with two primary stresses was replaced by a more productive model secondary + primary in the 60s-70s of the 20th century" (T. Shevchenko, 2006)

We should mention here that the location of word stress in connected speech is influenced by the position of the word in the sentence. You can compare the placement ofstress in the following pairs:

She is bad-tempered. - She is a bad-tempered girl.

This variability ofword stress is accounted for by the influence ofspeech rhythm, which tends towards a regular alteration between stressed and un­ stressed syllables.

The fourth factor which should be considered is the dependence ofword stress on the grammatical category the word belongs to. The influence of this factor can be illustrated by the pairs of words, in which adjective and noun are contrasted to verbs: 'insult- in'suit, 'record re'cord, 'peifect- per­ 'fect, 'present - pre'sent.

So to predict the assignment ofword stress it is necessary to identifY and consider the factors that independently or in combination determine the placement ofstress. Philip Carr, for example, views these factors in the fol­

Chapter IV

INTONATION

4.1.Definition of Intonation

4.2.Components of Intonation

4.3.Intonation Pattern as the Basic Unit of Intonation

4.4.Notation

4.5.Functions of Intonation

4.5.1.Communicative function as the basic function of intonation

4.5.2.Distinctive function

4.5.3.Organising function

4.5.4.Intonation in discourse

4.5.5.Pragmatic function

4.5.6.Rhetorical function

4.6.Rhythm

4.6.1.Speech rhythm. Definition. Typology

4.6.2.Rhythmic group as the basic unit of rhythm

4.6.3.Rhythm in different types of discourse

4.6.4.Functions of rhythm

4. 1. Definition of Intonation

In this chapter we shall focus on intonation, the topic ofparticular theo­ retical and practical interest. It is the sphere of suprasegmental phonetics. The flow ofspeech does not consist only ofsegmental units (speech sounds), there are also other phonetiC means that characterize a sequence of speech

sounds. They are called suprasegmental or prosodic means.

Intonation is a language universal. There are no languages which are spoken as a monotone, i. e. without any change of prosodic parameters. But intonation functions in various languages in different ways.

What is the role intonation plays in the language? Intonation is indis­ pensable in communication, because it is instrumental in conveying mean­ ing. No sentence can exist without a particular intonation. No meaning can be expressed without it.

Intonation can be described on the acoustic level (in terms of its acous­ lie characteristics), on the perception level (in terms of the characteristics perceived by human ear) and on the linguistic level (in terms of meanings expressed by intonation). We would like to start with the description of in­ lonation on the perception and acoustic levels and then pass over to its lin­ guistic function.

What is intonation? It is quite impossible to describe intonation in a word or two. Sometimes the ups and downs of pitch and loudness are com­ pared to the waves of the ocean. "The surface of the ocean responds to the forces that act upon it in movements resembling the ups and downs of the human voice" (Bolinger, 1972).

There exist various approaches to the description of intonation and dif­ ferent definitions of this phenomenon. This polyphony of views can be ac­ counted for by the complex nature of intonation itself.

According to most Russian linguists on the perception level intonation is defined as a complex, a whole, formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo (the rate ofspeech and pausation) closely related. Some definitions also include timbre (voice quality), which is sometimes regarded as the fourth component of intonation. In our opinion timbre should not be part of the definition, because it has not been sufficiently described yet. Neither its material form nor its linguistic function has been objectively in­ vestigated. Though speech timbre can definitely convey certain shades of attitudinal or emotional meaning there is no good reason to consider it alongside with the three basic components of intonation, 1. e. pitch, loud­ ness and tempo.

In the British and American tradition intonation is restricted to the pitch (tone) changes only. Intonation is identified with pitch movements (or melody), because pitch has the greatest linguistic value. This approach to intonation goes back to the definitions given by the prominent British phoneticians in the first halfof the XX century. "Intonation may be defmed as the variations which take place in the pitch of the voice in connected speech" (D. Jones, 1976). This point of view is shared by contemporary linguists. "Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring pitch patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups ofwords ofvarying length" (A. Cruttenden, 1986).

"Intonation is the use of pitch variation to convey meaning" (P. Roach, 200l).

It can be seen that Russian scholars have a broader view of intonation. We are convinced that it is impossible to restrict intonation to pitch param­ eters only because generally all the three prosodic paramelers function as a whole. Giving priority to the pitch variations, we will adopt a broader defi­ nition, which will allow us to consider the semantic value of all the three components ofintonation.

There is another term "prosody", which is used in slIprasegmental pho­ alongside with the term "intonation". The term "prosody" refers to the variations ofthe same parameters (pitch, loud ness, li.lIlll)(») and is wide­

ly used in linguistic literature.

It should be noted that British phoneticians view prosody us a broader notion than intonation and single out such prosodic fcnturcs as pitch, loud­ ness, tempo and rhythm (D. Crystal, 1. Wells and olh(]l's). According to 1. Wells "the prosodic (or suprasegmental) charactcrisliGs of speech are those of pitch, loudness and speed (or tempo, or speech rate). They com­ bine together to make up the rhythm ofspeech... " (J. Wells, 2006).

We are not going to dwell here on differentiation ofllle !lotions "intona­ tion" and "prosody". \\e shall use the term "intonation" because it is gen­ erally used in teaching practice, however reference willlliso bll Inade to pro­ sodic features.

4.2. Components of Intonation

have already said, the components of intonal ion, or supraseg..: mental features that form intonation can be viewed 011 I.Iw IWollstic level. Each of them has its own acoustic correlate and can Ill' Ol*lctively mea­ sured. The acoustic correlate ofpitch is fundamental frC(llI(lllcy ofthe vibra­ tions ofthe vocal cords; loudness correlates with intensity. (l'll II)() correlates with time (duration) during which a speech unit lasts.

Acoustic analysis ofintonation is used in experinlclllnlll'Hcnrch. Here intonation will be described in terms of perception , which is 1II000e accept­ able for the aims ofteaching.

It is generally acknowledged that each component guistically relevant and can be described as a system. system oftones (fall, rise, fall-rise and so on), pitch levols

be high, medium and low, and pitch ranges (wide, medilllll illlilllurrow).

\ariations in voice pitch occur within the normal range of the human voice, 1. e. within the interval between its upper and lower limits. Three pitch levels (keys, registers) are generally distinguished: high. medium and low.

high

---------- medium

---------- low

The pitch range is the interval between two pitch levels. When we speak about the pitch range ofthe whole intonation unit we mean the interval be­ tween the highest-pitched and the lowest-pitched syllables. Pitch ranges maybe normal, wide and narrow.

Iwide

Inormal

Inarrow

Loudness is described as normal, increased (forte) or low (piano). Tempo includes rate ofspeech and pausation.

The rate of speech can be normal, slow and fast. Generally, the parts of the utterance which are particularly important are pronounced at a slower rate, while in less important parts the rate of speech tends to be faster.

Any stretch of speech can be split into smaller segments by means of pauses. A pause is a complete stop of phonation. Pauses are classified ac­ cording to their length, their position in the utterance (final - non-final) and their function.

rn teaching English intonation it is sufficient to distinguish the follow­ ing types ofpauses:

l.Short pauses which may be used to separate intonation groups within a phrase.

2.Longer pauses which normally manifest the end ofthe phrase.

3.Very long pauses which are used to separate bigger phonetic units (pho­ nopassages).

Functionally, there may be distinguished syntactic, emphatic and hesi­

tation pauses.

Syntactic pauses separate phonopassages, phrases, intonation groups. Emphatic pauses serve to make some parts of the utterance especially

prominent.

She is the most Icharming girll've ever seen. II

The subject ofthis talk is Iintonation. II

Hesitation pauses are mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain some time to think over what to say next. They may be silent (unfilled) or fIlled.

She is rather a Igood student.

Where does she live? - Um, notfar from here. II

It is clear that pauses can perfonn various functions. Besides the seg­ mentation of the speech continuum, pauses contribute to the temporal and rhythmical organization of speech.

As it was already said pauses are easily perceived when there is a stop of phonation. However there are cases when we perceive a pause when there is no stop ofphonation. It happens because a stop ofphonation is not an factor indicating an intonation group boundary. Thus, the impression of the boundary between speech segments may be created by perceivable pitch change, either stepping down or stepping up, depending on the direction of the nuclear tone movement.

All the three components ofintonation, i. e. pitch, loudness and tempo form the intonation pattern, the basic unit of intonation.

4.3. Intonation Pattern as the Basic Unit of Intonation

Eachsyllable in the speech chain has a special pitch colouring. Some of the syllables are characterized by significant moves of tone up and down. Each syllable bears a definite amount ofloudness. Pitch movements are separably connected with variations of loudness. Together with the tempo

of speech they fonn an intonation pattern which is the basic unit ofinton a­ tion.

An intonation pattern has one nuclear tone (nucleus) and may contain other stressed or unstressed syllables preceding or following the nuclear tone. The boundaries of an intonation pattern may be marked by stops of phonation, i. e. temporal pauses.

Intonation patterns serve to actualize syntagms in oral speech. A syn­ tagm is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete. In phonetics actualized syntagms are called intonation groups (tone groups). Each intonation group may consist ofone or more potential syntagms. For example, the sentence I think he is coming soon has two potential syntagms: I think and he is coming soon. In oral speech it is nonnally actualized as one intonation group.

A phrase (a sentence actualized in oral speech) may contain one or sev­ eral intonation groups. The number of intonation groups depends on the length of the phrase and the semantic importance given to various parts of the phrase:

This vbed 'was 'not 'slept .in. II - I This bed Iwas v not 'slept .in. II

An additional nuclear tone on this contrasts "this bed" to "other beds". Here is another example:

-+Last tSummer Iv we went to 'stay with my 'sisterin ,London. -+Last tSummer Iv we went to 'stay with my tSister Iin ,London. II

The phrase above can be pronounced with either two or three intona­ tion groups.

The intonation pattern may include the following components: the nu­ clear tone (nucleus), the head, the pre-head and the taiL Now we shall dwell in more detail on each of these components.

Figure 10

Intonation pattern and its components

intonation pattern

Not all the stressed syllables in the intonation group are of equal prom­ inence. To highlight the most important word the speaker accents it, adding pitch prominence. One of the syllables has greater prominence than the others. It is the nucleus or the focal point (focus). The nucleus may be de­ scribed as a syllable which is marked by a significant change in pitch direc­ tion, i. e. where the pitch goes distinctly up or down. The nuclear tone is most important part of the intonation pattern. The intonation pattern can­ not exist without it. At the same time the intonation pattern may consist of one syllable, which will be

The nuclear tones are generally grouped into simple (Low Fall, Low Rise and others), complex (Fall-Rise, Rise-Fall) and compound (Rise + Fall + Rise). According to R. Kingdon, the most important nuclear tones in Eng­ which should be included in the course of pronunciation for foreign learners, are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall-Rise (R. King­ don, 1958). D. Crystal postulates "a major division of nuclear tones into two

T

74 Chapter rv. Intonation

types: falling, the fInal direction of pitch movement being downward in each case, and rising, the fmal direction of pitch movement being upward. The category oflevel tone retains an ambiguous status in respect of this division" (D. Crystal, 1969). According to J. \\ells "the most basic distinction among English nuclear tones is that between falling and non-falling" (J. Wells, 2006). A. Cruttenden claims that there are three main factors which are the basis for the classifIcation of nuclear tones in English: the initial movement nucleus: fall or rise or level; the beginning point ofthis initial movement: high or low; a second change of pitch direction following the nucleus, which pro­ duces such tones as rise-fall and fall-rise. He distinguishes seven nuclear tones: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall-Rise, Rise-Fall and Mid-Level (A. Cruttenden, 1986).

The meanings of nuclear tones are difficult to specify in general terms. Roughly speaking, the falling tone of any level and range expresses "fInali­ ty", "completeness", "certainty", "independence".

Where is John? - He ~hasnJt ,come yet.

What~., the time? - It's "'nearly'jive o',clock.

A rising tone of any level and range expresses "incompleteness", "de­ pendence", "uncertainty". This tone conveys the impression that the con­ versation is not fInished and something else is to follow. The rising tone is used when the speaker wants to encourage further conversation.

I think I'll go now. - ~Are you ,ready?

Michael is coming to London. - '>I.Is he 'coming ;I'oon?

The rising tone is frequently used in polite requests, invitations, greet­ ings, farewells and other strategies of social interaction.

What shall I do now? ~Do go pn.

Couldyoujoin us? ~Not ,now.

The Fall-Rise is often used in English and conveys a variety of mean­ ings. When used at the end of the phrase it expresses reservation, that is it

asserts something and at the same time suggests that there is something else to be said, e. g.

Do you like pop-music? ~ vSometimes.

It's very interesting. v Yes,

The Fall-Rise can also be used in non-final intonation groups. It ex­ presses non-finality and indicates that another point is to follow:

'"Those who 'work in the voffices I "'ought to take 'plenty of,e:xerci~e. "'When ['come Vback Iwe will ~talk about it a,gain.

The Fall-Rise is also chosen by speakers when they want to refer to something already mentioned in the conversation or to the information shared by the speakers and the hearers.

Let's go to the cinema on Friday. - I'm going to the v cinema Ion ,Thurs

day.

This coat is beautiful. - It's vbeautiful, Ibut ~very eX,pensive.

When can we meet?- We could meet on vSunday (but noton Monday, but it might not suit you).

The falling-rising tone, as its name suggests, consists of a fall in pitch followed by a rise. If the nucleus is the last syllable of the intonation group the fall and rise both take place on one syllable the nuclear syllable. Other­ wise the rise occurs in the remainder ofthe tone unit:

Do you agree with him? - v Yes.

What can I do to mend matters? You could ap,ologize to fier.

Level tone is used in two main contexts. According to P. Roach, in short utterances it conveys a feeling of saying something routine, uninteresting and boring (P. Roach, 2001). It is frequently used at intonation group boundaries conveying non-finality.

I'm afraid I can't manage it. - In vview o/'allthe >circumstances I"'whv not 'try a,gain ?

'>I. First we'll dis'cuss >one othing IVthen will 'pass on to a,nother.

MidLevel tone is particularly common in spontaneous speech func­ tionally replacing Low Rise.

We should also mention such nuclear tones as Rise-Fall and Rise-Fall­ Rise. They add refmement to speech, but it is generally recommended to introduce these tones at the advanced level, when foreign learners have al­ ready mastered the basics of English intonation.

We have given a very general overview of the basic nuclear tones. Each of these tones can express other meanings in particular contexts. Some of them will be considered in the section "Functions of Intonation".

76

Chapter IV. Intonation

Returning to the structure of the intonation pattern, we should say that the tone ofa nucleus determines the pitch ofthe rest ofthe intonation pattern following it, which is called the tail. Thus after a falling tone the rest of the intonation pattern is at a low pitch. After a rising tone the rest of the intonation pattern is in an upward pitch direction.

,No, oMary. - ,Well, OMary.

The nucleus and the tail form what is called terminal tone.

The two other sections of the intonation pattern are the head and the pre~head. They form the pre-nuclear part of the intonation pattern. The

head contains the syllables beginning with the first stressed syllable up to, not including, the nucleus. The pre-head consists of unstressed or half-stressed syllables preceding the head. The head, the pre-head and the

tail are optional elements of the intonation pattern.

We were "'wondering ifyou could 'come to 'dinnerto,morrow.

The prenuclear part can take a variety of pitch patterns. Such varia­ tions do not usually affect the grammatical meaning of the utterance, but they often convey attitudinal or stylistic meanings. The character of pitch movements in the pre-nuclear part is often quite complex and heterogeneous. Generally three common types of pre-nucleus are dis­ tinguished: a descending type in which the pitch gradually descends to the nucleus; an ascending type in which the syllables form an ascending

sequence and a level type when all the syllables are more or less on same level:

-,

Compare the types ofhead in the following phrases:

"'"Why are you 'makingsuch a 'mess ofit?

"'".

.."."Why are you 'makingsuch a 'mess ofit?

. .' "­,

.. ....

~"Why are you 'makingsuch a ,mess ofit?

... ,..

The examples show that different types of pre-nuclear patterns do not affect the grammatical meaning of the sentence but they can convey speaker's attitude.

Summing up, we may say that minimally an intonation pattern con­ sists of one syllable, which is its nucleus, Maximally it may include three other elements: the head, the pre-head and the tail.

The meaning of the intonation group is the combination ofthe mean­ conveyed by the terminal, pre-nuclear part, pitch level and pitch

range.

Obviously the elements of the intonation pattern can be combined in various ways and express a variety of meanings, Compare the meanings of the following utterances:

Not at ,all. (calm, reserved)

~Not at ,all. (weighty, considered) ~Not at ,all. (encouraging, friendly) ~Not at 'all. (questioning)

~Not at 'all. (surprised) ~Not at \fall. (protesting)

The number of possible combinations is more than a hundred, but not all of them are of equal importance. So in teaching it is necessary to select a limited number ofintonation patterns which are frequently used in Eng­ lish discourse and which have a particular communicative value.

In these sections we have considered in a very general way the compo­ nents of intonation. It follows from this overview that all of them are closely interconnected in the processes of speech production and speech perception. We must point out here that the changes in pitch, loudness and tempo are not accidental variations. The rules governing these chang es are highly organized. Irrespective of the individual prosodic character­ istics that can be traced in each speaker, these changes tend to become standardized, so that all speakers of the language use them in similar ways under similar circumstances. These characteristics of intonation struc­ tures may be called intonation units which form the prosodic system of English.

4.4. Notation

What is the best suitable way of representing intonation in the text? There are a variety ofmethods for recording intonation patterns in writ­

ing and we can look at the advantages and disadvantages of some of the commoner ones. The first three methods reflect variations in pitch only:

1. The method introduced by Ch. Fries (1965) involves drawing a line around the sentence to show relative pitch heights:

He's gone to the /o/Vice.

2. According to the second method the syllables are written at different heights across the page. The method is particularly favoured by D. Bolinger (1972):

I absolutely deny it.

Bolinger'sbook has the cover title:

a ton t

i

In o

n

This method is quite inconvenient as its application wants a special model of print.

3. According to third, "levels" method, a number of discrete levels of pitch are recognized, and the utterance is marked accordingly. This method was favoured by some American linguists such as K. L. Pike (1958) and others who recognized four levels ofpitch: low, normal, high and extra-high, num­ bering them from 1-4. Since most linguists who have adopted this method have favoured low-to-high numbering, we shall use this in our example:

He's gone to the office.

This notation corresponds to the pattern of the example illustrating the first method.

4. The fourth method is favoured by most of the British phoneticians such as D. Jones, R. Kingdon, J. O'Connor and G. Arnold, M. Halliday, D. Crystal and others, as well as by Russian phoneticians who have success­ developed it. This method has a number of advantages. Firstly, not onlyvarlations ofpitch but also stressed syllables are marked. Secondly, dis­ tinct modifications of pitch in the nuclear syllable are indicated by special

symbols, i. e. by a downward and an upward arrow or a slantwise stress mark. More than that. Pitch movements in the pre-nuclear part can be indicated too. Thirdly, it is very convenient for marking intonation in texts.

One ofthe disadvantages ofthis method is that there is no general agree­ ment about the number of terminal tones and pre-nuclear patterns English intonation system requires in order to provide an adequate description. So the simplest (D. Jones) recognizes only two tones, a fall and a rise easy to distinguish, but not sufficient for phonetic analysis. We should definitely give preference to a more complex system, such as J. D. O'Connor and G. F. Arnold's, which has no fewer than ten different nuclear tones. It is quite sufficient for teaching pronunciation even to advanced learners. The most detailed indication of the pre-nuclear part of the intonation pattern is introduced in the textbook «npaI<'I'Jl'IeCKMQ:>oHeTHKa aHf.JIHHCKoro H3blKa» (CoKOJIOBa M. A. I1 )]p., 2001) in whichJ. D. O'Connorand G. F. Arnold's system underwent further modification. All the relevant pitch changes in the pre-nuclear part are indicated by arrows placed before the first stressed syllable instead of an ordinary stress-mark, cf. :

We believe it is clear from the above that this system deserves recogni­ tion not only because it reflects all relevant variations of the two prosodic components of information but also because it serves a powerful visual aid for teaching pronunciation.

Our further point will be the description of the functional aspect ofinto­ nation in different textual discourse units. To establish the linguistic relevance ofprosodic features it is necessary to look for contrasts or oppositions, which can show their linguistic significance. In the next section we are going to look at each component of intonation, or, in other words, each prosodic feature, pitch, loudness and tempo and the way they function in speech.

4.5. Functions of Intonation

4.5.1.Communicative function as the basic function ofintonation

Our further point will be the description of intonation on the func­ tionallevel. Intonation is functional, i. e. it is used in a language for par­