Соколова - теоретическая фонетика англ

7.-ingis [Ill].

8.[h] is present.

9.A specific Scottish feature is the pronunciation of [er] as [Ir]: through

[Jru:].

Non-systematic Difference

Some words have pronunciation distinctively different from RP:

6.3.7. Northern Ireland English

It should be stated first of all that English pronunciation standards in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Eire are different. The explanation lies in history. ,

Tn the Middle Ages almost the whole of Ireland was Irish speaking. Nowadays, however, native speakers ofIrish are few in number and are con­ fined to rural areas even though Irish is the official language of Ireland and is taught in schools. The English language in Southern Ireland was origi­ nally introduced from the West and West Midlands of England shows signs of this today. This kind of English has spread to cover most of the Irish Republic. Naturally the pronunciation of these areas retains fea­ tures ofwestern parts of England.

The English of northern parts ofthe island with its centre in Belfast has its roots in Scotland, as large numbers of settlers carne to this part from the south-west of Scotland from the seventeenth century onwards. Now speak­ ing about Northern Ireland, it is true to say that English here is not homo­ geneous. Areas ofthe far north are heavily Scots-influenced. Other parts are marked by less heavily Scots-influenced varieties ofEnglish. It is, ofcourse, obvious that the language distinction is not coterminous with the political division ofthe Republic ofIreland and Northern Ireland, some areas ofthe

Republic, Donegal, for instance, speak Northern Ireland English, while some ofthe no.rthern provinces speak Southern Ireland English.

In this chapter we shall deal with Northern Ireland English pronuncia­ tion.

Vowels'

2.[;):], [u] are flljl'l,VV~'lIlInl:

3.[;):] and 1.'01 c()lllrw.i ollly bolbl'c [p, t, k];

4.[all, [au] arc W1Y villi"hl~~;

5.realization oflll:IIlIiIY VBI)' considerably.

Consonants

1.[I] is mainly l'l"[lI';

3.between vowels [0] may be lost: mother ['m;):ar]

4.[h] is present.

6.4. American-based Pronunciation Standards of English

The American variant of English has been very thoroughly described by many prominent scholars both in this country and in the USA. In this book, however, we shall try to follow the conception introduced by A. D. Shweitzer in his sociolinguistic approach to the treatment of contemporary speech situation in America.

The sociolinguistic situation in the United States is very complicated. It is moulded by certain linguistic, cultural, historic, demographic, geograph­ ic, political and other factors.

Generally speaking, the situation in the USA may be characterized as exoglossic, i. e. having several languages on the same territory, the balance being in favour ofAmerican English.

It is true, of course, that the formation of the American Standard un­ derwent the influence of minorities' languages, but its starting point was English language of the early 17th century. However, time has passed, American English has drifted considerably from English English though as yet not enough to give us ground to speak of two different languages.

we speak of the national variant of English in America.

American English shows a lesser degree ofdialect than British English due to some historical factors: the existence ofStandard English when first English settlers came to America, the high mobility ofpopulation, internal migrations ofdifferent communities and so on. As regards pronunciation, however, it is not at all homogeneous. There are certain varieties of educated American speech. In the USA three main types of cultivated speech are recognized: the Eastern type, the Southern type and Western or General American.

1.The Eastern type is spoken in New England, and in New York city. It bears a remarkable resemblance to Southern English, though there are, of course, some slight differences.

2.The Southern type is used in the South and South-East of the USA. It possesses a striking distinctive feature - vowel drawl, which is a specific way of pronouncing vowels, consisting in the diphthongization and even triphthongi­

zation ofsome pure vowels and monophthongization ofsome diphthongs at the expense ofprolonging ("drawling") their nuclei and dropping the glides.

3. The third type of educated American speech is General American (GA), also known as Northern American or Western American spoken in central Atlantic States: New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin and others. GA pronunciation is known to be the pronunciation standard ofthe USA. There are some reasons for it. GA is the form ofspeech used by the radio and televi­ sion. It is mostly used in scientific, cultural and business intercourse. Also in two important business centres - New York and St. Louis - GA is the pre­ vailing form ofspeech and pronunciation, though New York is situated with­ in the territory where Eastern American is spoken, and S1. Louis is within the region of Southern American. In this chapter we shall give an outline of GA accent. We will then point to differences between this accent and RP.

6.4.1. General American

Vowels

1. There is no strict division ofvowels into long and short in GA, though some American phoneticians suggest that certain GA vowels are tense and likely to be accompanied by relative length: [i:] in seat, [u:] in pool.

They also admit that a slight rise in tongue position during the pronun­ ciation of tense vowels leads to a diphthongal quality of tense vowels which contrasts to a monophthongal quality oflax vowels.

2.Classification of vowels according to the stability of articulation is a very controversial subject in GA. Some diphthongs are treated as biphone­ rnic combinations. The inventory of GA diphthongs varies from three to twelve phonemes. Following D. Shakhbagova we distinguish here five diph­ thongs in GA: [el], [al], [;)1], [au], [au].

3.Another important feature that causes different interpretations of diphthongs and vowel length in GA is the pronunciation of [r] between a

vowel and a consonant or between a vowel and a silence: tum [t3f n], bird star [sta:'].

It has been estimated that 2/3 of American population pronounce and 1/3 omit it. Thus GA is rhotic. In words likefar, core, when [r] follows the vowels and ends the word this sound is consonantal and non-syllabic. It involves the characteristic hindering of the free flow ofbreath which we as"> sociate with consonants. The sound [r] in far closes the syllable more dcH"

nitely than in British Received Pronunciation of the word [fa:]. On the oth­ er hand, there is a vocalic or vowel-like and syllabic [r] that occurs in words like bird, murmur, after a vowel and before a consonant.

4. One more peculiar feature of pronunciation of vowels in American English is their nasalization, when they are preceded or followed by a nasal consonant (in such words as take, small, name, etc. ). Nasalization is often called an American twang. It is incidental and need not be marked in pho­ nemic transcription.

S. GA front vowels are somewhat different from RP.

In words like very,pity GAhas [i:] rather than [I]. In word flnalposition it is often even diphthongized.

The vowel [e] is more open in GA. It also may be diphthongized before [p], [t], [k]: let [Ieot].

6.There are four mixed or central vowels in GA: [3], [aJ, [A], [a]. They differ markedly from RP vowels in articulation and distribution.

7.The three RP vowels [u], [ee], [a:] correspond to only two vowels in GA- [a] and [eel. This combined with the articulatory differences between RP [u] and GA [a] and a difference in vowel distribution in many sets of words makes it very complicated. The following chart vividly shows it:

Besides word distribution of [::>:] , [u] in RP and GAis completely differ­ ent. GA [::>] is intermediate in quality between the RP [::>:] and [u]. In its production the lips are considerably less rounded.

8. Now to the qualities of GA diphthongs.

a)the diphthong fer] is closer in GA as opposed to RP;

b)the nucleus of [3U] tends to be more advanced in GA;

c)since GA is a rhotic accent with non-prevocalic [r], it has the conse­ quence that the following RP vowels (derived historically from vowel +[r]) do not occur in GA: [ra] in dear - GA [drr], lea] in dare - GA [derr], [ua] in tour - GA [tur].

Consonants

1.The RP allophonic differentiation of [I] does not exist in GA. In all positions [I] is fairly dark.

2.Intervocalic [t] as in pity is most normally voiced. The result is neu­ tralization of the distribution between [t] and [d] in this position, i. e. latter, ladder. The original distinction is preserved through vowel length with the

vowel before [t] being shorter.

In words like twenty, little [t] may even drop out. Thus winner and win ter, for example, may sound identical.

3. GA [r] is articulated differently from RP one. The impression is one of greater retroflexion (the tip of the tongue is curled back further than in RP).

spelling is represented in GA by [M] sound (or sometimes as LhW]. So most American speakers make a clear distinction

and "w" words: where - ware, which - witch.

Non-systematic Differences between GeneralAmerican and Received Pro nunciation

1. Many differences involve the pronunciation of individual words or groups ofwords. Here are some of these:

2.Words apparatus, data, status can be pronounced with either [::e] or in GA, but only with [el] in RP.

3.Words like hostile, missile, reptile have final [ail] in RP. GA they may have [el].

Stress Differences

1. In words of French origin GA tends to have stress on the fmal sylla­ ble, while RP has it on the initial one:

2. Some words have first-syllable stress in GA whereas in RP the stress may be elsewhere.

3.Some compound words have stress on the first element in GA and in RP they retain it on the second element: weekend, ice-cream, hot dog, New Year.

4.Polysyllabic words ending in -ory, -ary, -many have secondary stress in GA, often called "tertiary": laboratory ['I::ebr<l,bn], dictionary ['dlkJ<l,nen], secretary ['sekr<l,ten], testimony [,testi,moum].

Intonation Differences

GA intonation on the whole is similar to that of RP. But there are, of course, some differences that shOUld be mentioned here.

I. In sentences where the most common pre-nuclear contour in RP is a gradually descending sequence, the counterpart GA contour is a medium Level Head:

I don't want to go to the theatre.

Its emphatic variant in Mid-wavy-Ievel Head:

GA .~~.~ ..

2. The usual Medium or Low Fall in RP has its rising-falling counter­ partin GA:

Come and see me tomorrow.

\.

3.The rising terminal tone in RP in GA has a mid-rising contour:

Do you like it?

Or it may have a level tone in GA:

4. The Fall-Rise nuclear tone is different in RP and GA:

Really?

These comparisons show that the main differences in intonation con­ cern the direction of the voice pitch and the realization of the terminal tones. In GA the voice doesn't fall to the bottom mostly. This explains the fact that the English speech for Americans sounds "affected" and "preten­ tious" or "sophisticated". And for the English, Americans sound "dull", "monotonous", "indifferent".

It should also be mentioned that the distribution of terminal tones in sentences types is also different in both variants of English.

1. GA "Yes, No" questions commonly have a falling terminal tone, the counterpart RP tone would be a rising one:

Shall we stay here?

2. Requests in RP are usually pronounced with a Rise, whereas in GA they may take a Fall-Rise:

Open the door.

3. Leave-takings are often pronounced with a high-pitched Fall-Rise in GA:

Goodnight. \.-/

In conclusion we would like to say that American phoneticians use a pitch contour system to mark intonation in the text:

It is certain that we have not covered here all the cases of different into­ nation structures used in RP and GA. Recently there have appeared in this country several papers and books on the subject, so for further information see those books.

Summary

Variations in pronunciation can be accounted for with reference both to geographical and social factors. In contemporary dialectology phonetic di­ versity is explained on the basis of the analysis of regional variants alongside with such indicators as age, gender, education, occupation.

To describe territorial varieties we refer to the national variants and na­ tional pronunciation standards (RP in Great Britain, GA in the USA). Na­ tional pronunciation standards are not fIxed, they undergo changes under the influence of various internal and external factors.

National variants faU into territorial or regional dialects. Dialects are distinguished from each other by differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. When we refer to varieties in pronunciation, we use the word "accent".

RP as the pronunciation standard ofGreat Britain is not homogeneous. Three types ofRP are distinguished: conservative (the language ofthe royal family and aristocracy), general (spoken by educated people) and advanced (used by the younger generation). Advanced RP is believed to reflect the new tendencies in pronunciation. There is another classification: general RP, refIned RP (upper-class accent) and regional RP (representing regional standards). One of regional types of RP is Estuary English which is very popular with the younger speakers.

Regional accents of Great Britain can be grouped into Southern Eng­ lish accents, Northern and Midland accents, Welsh English, Scottish Eng­ lish, Northern Ireland English.

General American is viewed as the pronunciation standard ofthe USA. The comparison ofRP and GA shows considerable differences in vowel and consonant systems, placement of stress and intonation.

REFERENCES

AHmunoea A. M. CI1CTeMa aHrJT11itcKOM peqeBoIi: MHTOHal(HI1. M.: BhlClIIaH lIIKOJIa,

1985.

AHmunoea A. M. PI1TMJ7IQeCKaH CHCTeMa aHrJIJ7IitcKOH peQI1. M.: BblCillaH lIIKOJIa,

1984.

ApalCuH B. J(. CpaBHMTeJIhHaH Tl1IIOJIOrHH aHrJIHMCKOrO M PYCCKOro H3bIKOS. M.: ITpocseIIIeHJ7Ie, 1979.

EOiJy3H iJe KypmeHe If. A. If36paHHble TPY)l.hl rro 06IIIeMY H3bIK03HaHHIO. M., 1963.

EOlliJaplw 11. B. u iJp. OCHOBhl o6IIIeIi: <poHeTl1KH. Crr6, 2000.

EypaJI. E. A., FaJl.o'tlCuHa H. E., IlIee'teHlCo T. H. Cl>oHeTl1Ka cospeMeHHoro aHrJIJ7IifcKOrO H3bIKa. M.: ACADEMIA, 2006.

BUUlHe8ClCaJI. F. H. AHrJlJ7lMCKaH HHTOHal(HH (B YCJIOBHHX PYCCKOH MHTep<pepeHU~T11). IIBaHoBo: I1saHoBcKHit rocY,1(apCTBeHHhIH YHJ7IBepCHTeT, 2002.

Buume8clCaJI. r. H., lle8uHa T. B. AHrJIMitCKaH cyrrpacemeH1'HaH<poHeTl1Ka. IIBaHoBo: IIBaHOBCKFIH rocY,1(apCTBeHHhlIi: YHJ7IsepC~ITeT, 2007.

FauiJy'tulC C. M. llPOCO,1(MQeCKaH CHCTeMa cOBpeMeHHoro HeMel(Koro H3hIKa. MI1HCK,

1972.

$y6oeclCuu /0. A. AHaJIJ7I3 HHTOHa:I!MH YCTHoro TeKCTa H ero COCTaBJIHIOIIII1X.. MHHCK,

1978.

$y6oeclCuu /0. A. llPOco,1(HQeCKHe KompaCThI s H3hIKe. CHM<pepOrroJIh: CfY, 1983.

3uHiJepll. P. 06IIIaH <poHenrKa. n. , 1982.

3Jlamoycmo8a ll. B., flomanoea P. K. u iJp. 06IIIaH 11 rrpHKJIa,1(HaH <poHeTHKa. M.: MfY,

1997.

KacamlCuH ll. ll. Cl>oHeTHKa COBpeMeHHoro PYCCKoro H3hIKa. M.: MIT, 2003.

KoiJ3aco8 C. B. , Kpu8Hoea O. $. 06IIIaH <poHeTI1Ka. M.: PfIT, 2001.

MUHaeea JL B. CJIOBO BH3hJKe HpeQH. M., 1986.

HUlCOllaeea T. M. CeMaHTHKa arrn;eH1'HOrO Bhl,1(eJIeHHH. M.: YPCC, 2004.

HUlCollaeea T. M. Cl>pa30BaH lfHTOHal(HH CJIaBHHCKHXR3bIKOB. M., 1977. lIaHoe M. B. COBpeMeHHhlIi: PYCCKHit H3bIK. Cl>oHeTI1Ka. M., 1979.

ClCpe6He8 /0. M. HopMa, HOpMaTl1BHhle peaJIlf3aI.(1111 H cy6bH3hIKOBaH crpYKTypa H3bIKa II HopMa peaJIlf3al(HH, Bapbl1pOBaHlfe H3bIKOBbIX cpe,1(CTB. fOPbKHH,

1980.

COlColloea M. A. U iJp. llpaKTH'IeCKaH <poHeTI1Ka aHrJIHitcKOro H3hlKa. M.: BmvlOc,

2000.

Topcyee F. fl. BOIIPOChi aKI.(eHTOJIOfl1lf cOBpeMeHHoro aHrJIHitcKoro H3bIKa. M.,

1960.

Topcye8a H. r. I1HTOHal(J1}I HCMbICJI BhlCKa3bIBaHHH. M., 1979. Tpy6e~lCou H. C. OCHOBhl <pOHOJIOrMH. M., 1960.

$oMu'teHlColl. r. KOrHHTl1BHIiIeOCHoBhIrrpOCOL\l1l!eCKOt! I1HTCPQ)epeHUHlf. BOJIrorpa,1(,

2005.

T.JepeMucuHa H. B. PyCCKaH HHTOHaUlfH. l103311H, npo:.m, pa3roBopHaH pe%. M., 1982.

IlI8eu~ep A. $. COl(lfaJIbHaH ,1(lf<p<pepeHUlfaUI1I1 II aHI'JII1~CKOM H3hIKe s CllIA.

1983.

me8'1.eHlCO T. H. COl(HaJIbHaH ,1(H<p<pepeHUHal\11l1 tHlI'J1I1~CKOro rrpOlf3HOlIIeHHH. M.: BIiIClIIaH IIIKOJIa, 1990.

me8'teHlCO T. H. TeopeTM.'IecKaH<poHeTI1K8. all I'JlI1f,!cKoro 513bIKa. M.: BhIciliaH IIIKOJIa,

2006.

IIJ,ep6a ll. B. Cl>oHeTHKa <ppaHuY3cKoro H3bIKI.l. M., 1963.

Abercrombie D. Problems and principles. London, 1956.

Abercrombie D. Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh, 1967.

BarberCh. Linguistic Change .in Present I)ay English. London, 1964

Bloomfield L. Language. NY, 1933

Bolinger D. Intonation. London, 1972.

Bolinger D. Intonation and its Uses. London: Edward Arnold, 1989.

Brazil D. The Communicative Value or Intonation. Cambridge, 1997.

Brazil D., Coulthard M., Johns C. Discourl>c Intonation and Language Teaching. Lon­ don: Longman, 1980.

Brown G. Listening to Spoken English. M. : npoCBelUeHl1e, 1984.

Carr Ph. English Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Chomsky N. and Halle M. The Sound Pattern of English. N. Y , 1968.

Couper-Kuhlen E. EngUsh Prosody. London: Edward Arnold, 1986.

Cruttenden A. Intonation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Crystal D. Prosodic Systems and Intonations in English. Cambridge, 1969.

Crystal D. The English Tone of\bice. L. , 1975.

Crystal D. Linguistics. Penguin Books, 1977.

Crystal D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia ofthc English Language. Cambridge, 1995.

Crystal D. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1997.

Crystal D. How Language Works. London: Penguin Books, 2007.

Fries Ch. Linguistics and Reading. New York, 1965.

Gimson A. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: Edward Arnolds,

1981.

Gimson A. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. Sixth edition. Revised by A. Cruttenden. London: Arnold, 2001.

Halliday M. A. K. A Course of Spoken English: Intonation. The Hague: Mouton, 1970.