3.4. Other Regimes of No-fault Liability

There are other circumstances in which reparation for loss caused by public authorities may be gained irrespective of fault.²¹⁵ Compensation can be gained by virtue of statutory authority. Under Part 1 of the Land Compensation Act 1973,²¹⁶ compensation is available where the value of an owner's interest in land has depreciated due to the use of public (p.161) works,²¹⁷ such as highways, aerodromes, or other works used in the exercise of statutory power.²¹⁸ There are however a series of restrictions: ‘[n]ot all property qualifies; not all owners qualify; not all causes of depreciation qualify, not all public works qualify’.²¹⁹ No claim can be made where an action in nuisance is possible:²²⁰ the provisions are designed to avoid the inequity of immunity in nuisance.

Other cases of property loss may also give rise to compensation. Where land is compulsorily purchased, the owner must be paid compensation.²²¹ The amount of reparation is calculated according to the principle of equivalence which mirrors the common law notion of restitutio in integrum.²²² Loss of property was also at the root of the famous case of Burmah Oil v Lord Advocate²²³ A claim was brought by an oil company in respect of the loss of oil installations which had been destroyed by the British Army during the Second World War. It was accepted that the destruction was a lawful exercise of prerogative powers. The company was nonetheless awarded compensation on the basis that, if the Crown expropriated private property for public purposes by use of prerogative powers and without express statutory authority, compensation must be paid unless the damage was caused in the wholly exceptional case of ‘battle damage’. Much reliance was placed upon the Scottish law notion of eminent domain, but sparse reference was also made to principles of equality before public burdens.²²⁴ In any case, the House of Lords decision was subsequently nullified by controversial legislation with a retroactive effect, which no doubt discouraged the judiciary from making further attempts to create a broad principle of liability for lawfully appropriated property.

Provisions for liability without fault may also be found in miscellaneous compensation schemes, such as financial awards for those who have suffered a miscarriage of justice,²²⁵ and the shadowy Home Office scheme providing ex gratia payments for property damage caused by those absconding from borstal and open prisons.²²⁶ These schemes will be examined in more depth in Chapter 8.

(P.162) 4. Conclusion

English and French law seem to diverge markedly in respect of no-fault liability.²²⁷ During the twentieth century, the French administrative courts created a sophisticated concept of responsabilité sans faute. In English law, exceptional cases aside, there is no equivalent of the equality or risk principles. As we have seen in respect of the defence of statutory authority, English public authorities are generally not liable for lawful or authorized administrative action.²²⁸

Despite the antithetical approaches to no-fault liability, we can—on looking closer at the two systems—detect some similarities. The English system does cover in a typically piecemeal manner some of those areas encompassed by French no-fault liability. Loss caused by public works is compensated by statutory provision in England.²²⁹ Limited risk liability is afforded by the rule in Rylands v Fletcher. Damage caused by absconding detainees may not go entirely uncompensated: ex gratia payments are commonly made for damage to private property,²³⁰ and those who have sustained personal injury may have recourse to the Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme.²³¹ Moreover, the French law position itself is not as beneficial to claimants as initially might be thought. We have seen that the lack of filter at the fault level has been offset by other control mechanisms. Many of the classic cases of no-fault liability in French law have been overtaken by statutory provision,²³² subject to strict conditions or circumvented by elements of causation and loss.²³³ Many of the heads of no-fault liability in French law actually feature very rarely in the administrative courts' judgments.²³⁴ Liability for legislative acts has been imposed so infrequently that it is now of little practical importance.²³⁵

(p.163) Nonetheless, it must be recognized that important differences do exist in the extent and scope of no-fault liability in the two countries. There has been no equivalent of the pioneering French cases of no-fault liability in the medical sphere in English law. The breadth of liability for public works overshadows the English statutory regime. The patchwork English system, with its reliance on the disparate regimes described above, does little for legal certainty²³⁶ or consistency in the rules of compensation-granting.

There has been debate in common law systems whether it is desirable to introduce a broad principle of liability for lawfully caused loss based upon the risk theory or upon principles of equality.²³⁷ Street advocated creating a right to recover when the administrative machine ‘inflicts on an individual an exceptional loss’.²³⁸ Wade also seems to favour an application of the risk principle.²³⁹ Cohen and Smith have posited a theory of state liability based upon the concept of ‘social entitlement’ which is underpinned by notions of collective insurance and equality.²⁴⁰ There are attractions in such an approach. In many circumstances it would seem more equitable for the community to bear the costs of activities from which it benefits, rather than letting exceptional losses lie where they fall on one unfortunate individual. Powerful counter-arguments to this approach have been made. Hogg has argued that such a principle of compensation would be hard to delimit and would be likely to impinge upon the sphere of political discretion.²⁴¹ In resource terms, a severe drain on public funds might result from the risk principle.²⁴² A no-fault regime would shift the focus from the conduct of the public body to the loss sustained by the individual, involving complicated issues of which hardship merits compensation. Arrowsmith opines that it is preferable for the legislature or the executive to address this problem.²⁴³ But there are (p.164) weaknesses in leaving it to such institutions. There is simply the sheer inertia of Parliament in dealing with such issues. Those matters that do receive Parliamentary attention are not likely to do so on the basis of objective assessment, but rather due to factors such as the publicity of the cause and the strength of the relevant pressure groups.²⁴⁴

Notes:

(1) See pp. 39–40 above.

(2) Respectively Chaps. 6 and 7.

(3) See generally M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédie de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique, (Paris, 1988) ; F. Vincent, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’, Fascicule 824, 8, Juris-Classeur Administratifi F. Goliard, Le Domaine de la Responsabilité sans Faute dans le Contentieux Administratif Français (Thesis, L'Université de Paris II, 1995); Paillet, paras. 260–418.

(4) See generally P. Delvolvé, Le Principe d'Egalité Devant les Charges Publiques (Paris, 1969) . See the criticism of this case law by T. Debard, ‘L'Egalité des Citoyens devant les Charges Publiques’, D.1987 Chronique 157; P.-M. Gaudemet, ‘Réflexions sur le Principe d'Egalité devant les Charges Publiques’ in Mélanges Stassinopoulos (Paris, 1974) 337 .

(5) See B. Schwartz, French Administrative Law and the Common-Law World (New York, 1954) 293 . See also Principle II of the Recommendation No R (84) 15 on Public Liability, adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 18 Sept. 1984.

(6) ‘For the maintenance of the forces of law and order and for the expenses of administration a general contribution is indispensable; it must be equally shared between citizens according to their means’. See CG Roujou's conclusions in CE 14 Jan. 1938, la Fleurette, D. 1938.3.41, 44. P. Delvolvé, Le Principe d'Egalité Devant les Charges Publiques (Paris, 1969) 233 ; P-M. Gaudemet, ‘Réflexions sur le Principe d'Egalité devant les Charges Publiques’ in Mélanges Stassinopoulos (Paris, 1974) ; Harlow, 102. Contra R. Chapus, Responsabilité Publique et Responsabilité Privée (Paris, 1954) 343–4 . For the influence of Art. 13 on tax measures see J. Bell, ‘Equality in the Case-Law of the Conseil Constitutionnel’ [1987] PL 426, 435–7 ; G. Pellissier, Le Principe d'Egalité en Droit Public (Paris, 1996) .

(7) This principle has several different permutations: see Paillet, paras. 263–325; J.-M. Cotteret, ‘Le Régime de la Responsabilité pour Risques en Droit Administratif’ in Etudes de Droit Public (Paris, 1964) 377 .

(8) B. Schwartz, French Administrative Law and the Common-Law World (New York, 1954) 292 . For discussion of equality in French law see Bell, n. 6 above.

(9) Following the categorization established by Chapus, paras. 1484–1520 and Paillet, paras. 260–418.

(10) CE 28 Mar. 1919, Regnault-Desroziers [1919] Rec 329. A translation of this case may be found in the Appendix.

(11) M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.) Dalloz Encyclopédic de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique (Paris, 1988) para. 68 .

(12) CE 21 Oct. 1966, SNCF [1966] Rec 557.

(13) CE 18 Nov. 1970, Picard [1970] Rec 687. Although there is some doubt about this line of case law: see M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédic de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique, (Paris, 1988) para. 72 .

(14) For instance, a risk-based claim by a person injured at a fireworks display by an errant rocket was rejected in CE 30 Mar. 1979, Moisan [1979] Rec 143 (recovery made on the basis of fault liability).

(15) See M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédic de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique, (Paris, 1988) para. 74 ; Paillet, para. 267.

(16) There are also some miscellaneous cases of risk-based no-fault liability which arise when public servants are subject to dangerous conditions of employment, e.g. CE 6 Nov. 1968, Saulze [1968] Rec 550; CE 16 Oct. 1970, Martin [1970] Rec 593.

(17) CE 24 June 1949, Lecomte [1949] Rec 307; CE 1 June 1951, Jung [1951] Rec 312.

(18) M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédic de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique (Paris, 1988) para. 81 . Partly, this is due to the fact that the civil courts have broad jurisdiction over cases concerning the prevention of criminal activity, thereby reducing the impact of this administrative law doctrine: see M. Long et al., Grands Arrêts de la Jurisprudence Administrative (10th edn, Paris, 1993) 414 .

(19) CE 16 Mar. 1956, Domenech [1956] Rec 124. On this basis, no-fault liability would not have been applicable in a French version of Rigby v Chief Constable of Northamptonshire [1985] 1 WLR 1242.

(20) CE 8 July 1960, Petit [1960] Rec 463.

(21) Fault of the police must be shown by those who are involved in the incident giving rise to the injury: CE 13 Oct. 1982, Berrandou [1982] Rec 340.

(22) See C. J. Hamson, ‘Escaping Borstal Boys and the Immunity of Office’ [1969] CLJ 273.

(23) CE 2 Dec. 1981, Theys [1981] Rec 456.

(24) This head of no-fault liability is now commonly thought to be explained by the risk principle (Chapus, para. 1491; Brown and Bell, 165) but this has been the subject of debate: see, e.g. Hamson, n. 22 above, 278.

(25) CE 3 Feb. 1956, Thouzellier [1956] Rec 49; CE 14 June 1978, Dodon [1978] Rec 258.

(26) CE 13 July 1967, Département de la Moselle [1967] Rec 341; CE 13 May 1987, Piollet [1987] Rec 172.

(27) CE 19 Dec. 1969, Etablissements Delannoy [1969] Rec 596.

(28) CE 29 Apr. 1987, Garde des Sceaux [1987] Rec 158.

(29) Ibid.

(30) CE 9 Mar. 1966, Trouillet [1966] Rec 201. See C. J. Hamson, ‘Escaping Borstal Boys and the Immunity of Office’ [1969] CLJ 273, 279.

(31) Deguergue, 372.

(32) CE 29 Apr. 1987, Garde des Sceaux [1987] Rec 158; CE 12 Nov. 1975, Schmitt [1975] Rec 562.

(33) CAA Lyon 21 Feb. 1989, Daumas, Req 89LY00017; CAA Bordeaux 30 July 1993, Varin, Req 92BX00638.

(34) See Chap. 7.

(35) See, e.g. CAA Nantes 10 Apr. 1997, Primau, Req 95NT00108.

(36) CE 21 Feb. 1990, Hôpitaux Civils de Thiers, Req 63293.

(37) CE 30 June 1978, Clotault [1978] Rec 289; CE 26 July 1985, Cendrier, Req 35250.

(38) Although there are indications of a change in CE 5 Dec. 1997, Pelle [1997] Rec 481.

(39) CE 14 June 1978, SOCOFA [1978] Rec 259; CE 18 Nov. 1988, Coirier [1988] Rec 1000. This artificial distinction between delinquents and those in care has caused delimitation problems: R. Errera, ‘The Scope and Meaning of No-Fault Liability in French Administrative Law’ (1986) 39 CLP 157, 167–8 .

(40) CE 3 Nov. 1976, Nemoz [1976] Rec 471; CAA Bordeaux 3 Feb. 1997, Sakoyan, Req 95BX00342; CAA Nancy 12 June 1990, Garde des Sceaux, Req 89NC00880.

(41) See the comments in CE 2 Dec. 1981, Theys [1981] Rec 456.

(42) Dorset Yacht v Rome Office [1970] AC 1004.

(43) See pp. 41–2 above.

(44) But note the administrative compensation scheme under which ex gratia payments are made to the public when damage or loss is caused by absconding prisoners: see p. 253 below. There is no need to prove negligence in order to gain compensation under the scheme.

(45) Moreover, the test of causation is likely to be more strictly conceived in English law: see Marti v Smith (QBD, 22 May 1981), where a claim in damages for personal injury caused by an escaped borstal boy was rejected because the escapee borstal boy had ‘made away from the vicinity of the Borstal’ when the incident occurred.

(46) This is reflected in Lord Diplock's reasons for reluctance in adjudging the civil liability of the Home Office arising from the liberal regime adopted for borstals in the Dorset Yacht case: [1970] AC 1004, 1067.

(47) CE 21 June 1895, Cames [1895] Rec 509. A translation of this case may be found in the Appendix.

(48) See generally C. Emeri, De La Responsabilité de l'Administration à l'Egard de ses Collaborateurs (Paris, 1966) ; Y. Pittard and J. Rossinyol, ‘La Responsabilité de l'Etat et des Communes du Fait des Dommages Subis par Leurs Agents’, RDP 1975.635; J.-F. Prévost, ‘La Notion de Collaborateur Occasionnel et Bénévole du Service Public’, RDP 1980.1071.

(49) Note that the original ambit of the Cames case (concerning employee protection) is now largely covered by statutory provisions: J.-M. Cotteret, ‘Le Régime de la Responsabilité pour Risques en Droit Administratif’ in Etudes de Droit Public (Paris, 1964) 391 ; P. Amselek, ‘La Responsabilité sans Faute des Personnes Publiques d'Après la Jurisprudence Administrative’ in Mélanges Eisenmann (Paris, 1975) 223, 236 ; M. Rougevin-Baville, La Responsabilité Administrative (Paris, 1992) 76 .

(50) CE 27 July 1990, Bridet [1990] Rec 230.

(51) CE 27 Nov. 1970, Appert-Collin [1970] Rec 709; CE 14 Dec. 1988, Commune de Catillon [1988] Rec 1001.

(52) CE 18 Jan. 1984, Ferlin, Req 30600. Even abroad: CE 13 Jan. 1993, Galtié [1993] Rec 11.

(53) The most common situations covered by this case law are injuries sustained whilst assisting in firefighting, whilst acting as a rescuer, and whilst organizing communal events (e.g. concerts): M. Rougevin-Baville, La Responsabilité Administrative (Paris, 1992) 76 .

(54) This case law is perhaps partially explained by the legal obligation to assist those in danger (Art. 223–6(2) of the Criminal Code). See further A. Ashworth and E. Steiner, ‘Criminal Omissions and Public Duties: The French Experience’ (1990) 10 LS 153.

(55) CE 14 Oct. 1988, Le Goff [1988] Rec 341. See F. Vincent, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ Fascicule 824, 8, Juris-Classeur Administratif, para. 39.

(56) CE 25 Sept. 1970, Tesson [1970] Rec 540. See also CE 1 July 1977, Commune de Coggia [1977] Rec 301.

(57) CE 30 Apr. 1990, Commune Decoueron, Req 61951.

(58) CAA Lyon 22 Sept. 1993, Société d'Assurances Winterthur, Req 92LY01040.

(59) CE 9 Oct. 1970, Gaillard [1970] Rec 565; CE 30 Apr. 1990, Commune Decoueron, Req 61951. For further explanation of this requirement see CG Rougevin-Baville's conclusions in CE 9 Oct. 1970, Gaillard, RDP 1970.1431,1442–3.

(60) CE 14 Dec. 1981, Guinard, RDP 1982.1447.

(61) CE 29 Apr. 1983, Narcy [1983] Rec 856.

(62) A distinction which is not always easy to draw: CAA Lyon 10 Oct. 1990, Commune de Saint-Rémy-de-Provence [1990] Rec 470.

(63) CE 2 Feb. 1979, Gauthier [1979] Rec 38.

(64) CE 13 July 1966, Leygues [1966] Rec 475 (privately organized local fête). See F. Vincent, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ Fascicule 824, 8, Juris-Classeur Administratif, para. 39. For a broad definition of ‘public service’ in these cases see J.-F. Prévost, ‘La Notion de Collaborates Occasionnel et Bénévole du Service Public’, RDP 1980.1071, 1078.

(65) CE 10 June 1988, Zakariades, Req 73001; CAA Lyon 18 Jan. 1995, Grand, Req 93LY00290. See M. Rougevin-Baville, La Responsabilité Administrative (Paris, 1992) 75 .

(66) J. Moreau, La Responsabilité Administrative (2nd edn, Paris, 1995) 105. See CE 30 Apr. 1990, Commune Decoueron, Req 61951; CE 27 Nov. 1970, Appert-Collin [1970] Rec 709. Particularly reckless behaviour may exclude recovery entirely: CE 16 June 1989, Pantaloni [1989] Rec 143.

(67) Some commentators have expressed worries about the impact on the public finances: J.-F. Prévost, ‘La Notion de Collaborateur Occasionnel et Bénévole du Service Public’ RDP 1980.1071, 1096.

(68) Confirmed by a search of the case law of the Conseil d'Etat and Cours Administratives d'Appel. See the comments of Moreau about the strictness of the criteria of recovery in these cases: La Responsabilité Administrative (2nd edn, Paris, 1995) 93.

(69) Generally see P. Delvolvé, Le Principe d'Egalité Devant les Charges Publiques (Paris, 1969) . See the criticism of this case law by P.-M. Gaudemet, ‘Réflexions sur le Principe d'Egalité devant les Charges Publiques’ in Mélanges Stassinopoulos (Paris, 1974) .

(70) CC 4 July 1989 [1989] Rec CC 41; CC 8 Jan. 1991, Loi Relative A La Lutte Contre Tabagisme et L'Alcoolisme, [1991] Rec CC 11.

(71) Some even believe that the entire regime of governmental liability is based upon égalité devant les charges publiques: see T. Debard, ‘L'Egalité des Citoyens devant les Charges Publiques’ D.1987 Chronique 157, 159; J.-P. Dubois, La Responsabilité Administrative (Paris, 1996), 12–13 ; M. Rougevin-Baville, R. Denoix de Saint Marc, and D. Labetoulle, Leçons de Droit Administratif (Paris, 1989) 343–4 . See also the discussion by M.-A. Latournerie, ‘The Law of France’ in J. Bell and A. Bradley, Governmental Liability: A Comparative Study (London, 1991) 225–7 ; Deguergue, 688; M. Sousse, La Notion de Réparation de Dommages en Droit Administratif Françcais (Paris, 1994) 118 .

(72) CE 11 Jan. 1838, Duchatelet [1838] Rec 7; CE 29 Apr. 1921, Société Premier et Henry [1921] Rec 424.

(73) Paillet, para. 331; H. Street, Governmental Liability: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, 1953) 70–2 ; T. Debard, ‘L'Egalité des Citoyens devant les Charges Publiques’ D.1987 Chronique 157, 159.

(74) CE 14 Jan. 1938, La Fleurette [1938] Rec 25. A translation of this case may be found in the Appendix. Note the development of fault liability for legislation which is contrary to Community law: CAA Paris 1 July 1992, Dangeville [1992] Rec 558, (overturned on different grounds in CE 30 Oct. 1996, Dangeville [1996] Rec 399). See O. Gohin, ‘La Responsabilité de l'Etat en tant que Législateur’ [1998] RIDC 595, 608.

(75) M. Long et al., Grands Arrêts de la Jurisprudence Administrative (10th edn, Paris, 1993) 307 .

(76) O. Gohin, ‘La Responsabilité de l'Etat en tant que Législateur’ [1998] RIDC 595; R. Errera, ‘The Scope and Meaning of No-Fault Liability in French Administrative Law’ (1986) 39 CLP 157, 158 ; Paillet, para. 332; Brown and Bell, 200; M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédie de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique (Paris, 1988) para. 123 .

(77) CE 21 Jan. 1944, Caucheteux et Desmonts [1944] Rec 22 (and this decision was never implemented by the government: Harlow, 104); CE 25 Jan. 1963, Bovero [1963] Rec 53; CE 18 Dec. 1981, CAPRI [1981] Rec 478.

(78) Sect. 2.2.4 below.

(79) M. Rougevin-Baville, La Responsabilité Administrative (Paris, 1992) 89 .

(80) Paillet, para. 355; O. Gohin, ‘La Responsabilité de l'Etat en tant que Législateur’ [1998] RIDC 595, 602; Deguergue, 380.

(81) Paillet, para. 355.

(82) CE 2 Nov. 1966, Roux [1966] Rec 579.

(83) CE 13 Oct. 1978, Perthuis [1978] Rec 370; CE 11 July 1990, Société Stambouli Frères [1990] Rec 214.

(84) CE 8 Jan. 1965, Société des Etablissements Aupinel [1965] Rec 15 and CAA Nancy 13 Nov. 1990, SARL Beirnaert, Req 89NC01370. See R. Errera, ‘The Scope and Meaning of No-Fault Liability in French Administrative Law’ (1986) 39 CLP 157, 160–2 .

(85) CE 21 Jan. 1983, Ville de Bastia [1983] Rec 22.

(86) CE 27 Feb. 1974, Masson, Req 89794; CE 24 Oct. 1973, Ministre de la Jeunesse [1973] Rec 1100.

(87) CE 30 Mar. 1966, Compagnie Général[e d'Energie Radio-Electrique [1966] Rec 257. Note that according to Art. 55 of the French Constitution, treaties have effect within the internal legal order, subject to certain conditions: J. Bell, French Constitutional Law (Oxford, 1992) 75 .

(88) P. Godfrin, ‘La Responsabilité de l'Etat du Fait des Conventions International’, RFDA 1993.157; R. Errera, ‘The Scope and Meaning of No-Fault Liability in French Administrative Law’ (1986) 39 CLP 157, 162 ; M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Fauté’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédic de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique, (Paris, 1988) para. 154 .

(89) Failed claims along these lines are: CE 30 Mar. 1966, Compagnie Générale d'Energie Radio-Electrique [1966] Rec 257; CE 1 June 1984, Tizon [1984] Rec 194.

(90) CE 29 Oct. 1976, Burgat [1976] Rec 452.

(91) CE 26 June 1970, Bartoli [1970] Rec 442.

(92) CE 30 Nov. 1923, Couitéas [1923] Rec 789. See Gabolde, D.1955 Chronique 77. See Prof. Bell's criticism of this line of case law: ‘Governmental Liability in Tort’ (1996) 6 NJCL 85, 90.

(93) See also the French Mediator's reports on this: Complaint N^o95–3843, Rapport 1996 au Président de la République et au Parlement, 26–7.

(94) For the influence of Community law on this type of no-fault liability see L. Dubouis, ‘La Guerre de la Fraise’, RFDA 1998.120.

(95) Although the courts have recently framed this principle more widely: CE 16 Nov. 1998, Silk, Req 175142; CAA Nancy 14 Oct. 1999, Commune de Strasbourg, Req 95NC00242: ‘state liability can arise, even without fault, on the basis of equality before the public burdens when a lawful measure causes loss which is special and of a certain severity’.

(96) This failure is not unlawful—and does not give rise to faute—if the administration fears that to enforce the court order would seriously compromise public order or security. For further discussion see J.-B. Auby, ‘L'Exécution avec le Concours de la Puissance Publique’, RTDC 1993.123.

(97) CE 14 Oct. 1987, SCI du Bois [1987] Rec 931; CE 21 July 1989, Haubois [1989] Rec 913; CE 21 July 1989, Société Pilot France, Req 70704. See M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédie de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique (Paris, 1988) para. 164 ; F. Soubelet, ‘L'Inexécution des Decisions d'Expulsions Locatives’, AJDA 1985.726. An action can be brought only after two months delay: CE 14 Oct. 1987, SCI du Bois [1987] Rec 931.

(98) CE 17 Feb. 1988, Laporte [1988] Rec 70; CE 6 May 1991, Société Automobiles Citroën [1991] Rec 172; CE 16 May 1989, Société Nouvelle Atlantic-Marée, Req 89PA00400. See R. Errera, ‘The Scope and Meaning of No-Fault Liability in French Administrative Law’ (1986) 39 CLP 157, 163 .

(99) CE 4 Oct. 1978, Société Linie [1978] Rec 355. A translation of this case may be found in the Appendix.

(100) CE 22 June 1984, Société Sealink Ltd [1984] Rec 246. See also for liability arising from misfeasance: CE 12 Oct. 1988, Société Vinalmar [1988] Rec 340; CE 7 Dec. 1979, Société Ramel [1979] Rec 456.

(101) J.-M. Breton, ‘L'Obligation pour l'Administration d'Exercer un Pouvoir Réglementaire d'Exécution des Lois’, RDP 1993.1749.

(102) CE 20 Mar. 1974, Navarra [1974] Rec 200.

(103) For instance, reparation was gained for the financial loss caused to a transport café by a Mayoral Order which obliged lorries to take a route bypassing the town centre: CE 13 May 1987, Aldebert, Req 50876; compare CAA Lyon 8 Feb. 1993, Bougarel, AJDA 1993.706, and harm caused by rural development works: CE 5 Feb. 1969, Raonel [1969] Rec 66.

(104) Damages actions in respect of disruption caused by travaux publics are sometimes included within the head of breach of égalité, but this type of no-fault liability will be examined in sect. 2.3.1 below.

(105) CAA Paris 25 May 1999, Felmy, Req 96PA04490; CAA Nantes 22 July 1999, Hébert, Req 96NT02170.

(106) CE 27 July 1984, Lebeaud [1984] Rec 728; CE 9 Oct. 1989, Ville de Port-Bail [1989] Rec 899.

(107) CE 14 Oct. 1987, SCI du Bois [1987] Rec 931.

(108) CE 22 June 1984, Société Sealink Ltd [1984] Rec 246.

(109) CE 9 Oct. 1989, Ville de Port-Bail [1989] Rec 899; CE 11 Mar. 1987, Weisbach [1987] Rec 92.

(110) CE 24 Mar. 1978, Advenier [1978] Rec 963.

(111) CE 24 Mar. 1978, Brussol [1978] Rec 963.

(112) Paillet, para. 346; M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédie de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique, (Paris, 1988) para. 236 ; Guettier, 160.

(113) CE 24 May 1967, CAPIA [1967] Rec 925; CE 31 Jan. 1969, Cohen [1969] Rec 948.

(114) CE 13 Nov. 1985, SOGENA [1985] Rec 772; CAA Paris 16 July 1992, Aga Khan, Req 91PA01073.

(115) See CAA Paris 16 July 1992, Aga Khan, Req 91PA01073; CE 9 Dec. 1987, Compagnie Générale des Goudrons, Req 25244.

(116) Chapus, paras. 1514 and 1518.

(117) M. Rougevin-Baville, ‘Responsabilité Sans Faute’ in F. Gazier and R. Drago (eds.), Dalloz Encyclopédie de Droit Public: Répertoire de la Responsabilité de la Puissance Publique, (Paris, 1988) para. 215 .

(118) CE 23 Dec. 1988, Martin [1988] Rec 470.

(119) CE 10 Jan. 1992, Commune de Blanquefort, Req 81428.

(120) CE 10 July 1996, Meunier [1996] Rec 289; CAA Lyon 8 Feb. 1993, Bougarel, AJDA 1993.706. For more discussion see Chap. 6, sect. 3.1.2.

(121) I. Mariani-Benigni, ‘L'〈〈Exception de Risque Accepté〉〉 dans le Contentieux Administratif de la Responsabilité’, RDP 1997.841, 875.

(122) CE 14 Oct. 1987, SCI du Bois [1987] Rec 931; CE 6 June 1980, Peyron, Req 13073.

(123) CAA Paris 25 May 1999, Felmy, Req 96PA04490; CAA Paris 16 May 1989, Société Nouvelle Atlantic-Maree, Req 89PA00400; CE 21 July 1989, Haubois [1989] Rec 913 (1.26 million FF claimed, 18,000 FF awarded). Some cases reveal large awards: CE 6 May 1991, Société Automobiles Citroën [1991] Rec 172. See further Chaps. 6 and 7.

(124) Deguergue, 387; M. Deguergue, ‘Le Contentieux de la Responsabilité: Politique Jurisprudentielle et Jurisprudence Politique’, AJDA 1995.211, 218.

(125) L.-M. Boucraut, La Réparation des Atteintes aux Biens dans le Contentieux des Responsabilités Civile et Administrative (Paris, 1993) para. 208 . This is confirmed by a search of the case law of the Conseil d'Etat and Cows Administratives d'Appel. Many claims are rejected: CE 13 July 1965, Baude [1965] Rec 471; CE 2 Mar. 1966, Rabeux [1966] Rec 155; CE 14 Jan. 1987, Société Marceau Immobilier [1987] Rec 923; CE 3 Mar. 1976, Pompier [1976] Rec 1101.

(126) See Chap. 4, sect. 3.3.

(127) Deguergue, 102. See also the reference to Law of 1799 in Brown and Bell, 193.

(128) CE 13 July 1965, Arbez-Gindre [1965] Rec 442.

(129) CE 28 May 1971, Entreprise Bee Frères [1971] Rec 419.

(130) CE 4 Feb. 1972, Trifaro [1972] Rec 117.

(131) CE 29 May 1974, Reyboz [1974] Rec 326. See also CE 20 Nov. 1981, Rodal, RDP 1982.1445.

(132) CE 10 Mar. 1997, Commune de Lormont [1997] Rec 74.

(133) CAA Paris 25 May 1999, Felmy, Req 96PA04490. See also CE 20 Nov. 1992, Commune de Saint-Victoret [1992] Rec 418.

(134) See Chap. 6, sect. 3.1.2. For instance, CE 23 May 1986, Brenot [1986] Rec 149; CE 8 Nov. 1985, Rijlaarsdam [1985] Rec 775.

(135) Paillet, para. 294. See, e.g., the cases in nn. 131–3 above.

(136) Cornell d'Etat: Rapport Public 1998, EDCE 1998.25; F. Maugué et L. Touvet, AJDA 1993.349.

(137) CAA Lyon 21 Dec. 1990, Gomez [1990] Rec 498.

(138) The only other successful claim on these lines is CAA Bordeaux 14 Dec. 1998, Centre Hospitalier Général de Montauban, Req 96BX00151.

(139) There has been much academic discussion about the conceptual basis for this line of case law: see generally Chapus, para. 1491 and D. Philipp, ‘De la Responsabilité à la Solidarité des Personnes Publiques’, RDP 1999.593 and the articles cited therein.

(140) CE 9 Apr. 1993, Bianchi [1993] Rec 127.

(141) C. Larroumet, ‘L'Indemnisation de l'Aléa Thérapeutique’, D.1999 Chronique 33, 34.

(142) Cornell d'Etat: Rapport Public 1998, EDCE 1998.252–3; Moreau, JCP 1998.11.10016; Paillet, para. 323; Contra Bon and Béchillon, D.1999 Sommaires Commentes 45.

(143) CE 30 July 1997, Kress [1997] Rec 308; CAA Lyon 31 May 1995, Boutrif, Req 94LY00834.

(144) CAA Bordeaux 12 Dec. 1994, Aidoud [1994] Rec 1174.

(145) CAA Bordeaux 4 Mar. 1996, Cambot, Req 94BX01371; CAA Paris 18 May 1999, Pautrel, Req 98PA01836; CAA Lyon 9 Mar. 1999, Saidi-Moussa, Req 95LY01859; CAA Nantes 8 Apr. 1999, Vilar, Req 95NT01118.

(146) CAA Paris 18 May 1999, Favre, Req 97PA00265; CAA Nantes 21 Oct. 1999, Lefort, Req 96NT00088.

(147) See CG Dael's conclusions in CE 9 Apr. 1993, Bianchi, RFDA 1993.573, 581.

(148) Conseil d'Etat: Rapport Public 1998, EDCE 1998.264. See also CG Dael's conclusions in Bianchi, RFDA 1993.581. However, a specific type of no-fault liability has been created in the sphere of ‘contaminated blood’. The administrative courts have held blood transfusion centres to be liable for the consequences of giving transfusions of infected blood: CE 26 May 1995, N'Guyen [1995] Rec 221; CAA Paris 12 Feb. 1998, X, Y, Req 95PA02814.

(149) Moreau, JCP 1998.II.10016.

(150) Although some decisions have illustrated a certain degree of suppleness in applying the conditions laid down in Bianchi. So, it would appear that the victim need not be sick: actions on the basis of medical intervention for religious reasons are not excluded: CE 3 Nov. 1997, Hôpital Joseph-Imbert d'Aries [1997] Rec 412; [1998] PL 153 (a boy died after suffering a heart attack induced by a general anaesthetic during a circumcision operation).

(151) CAA Lyon 13 Feb. 1997, Centre Hospitalier de Thonon-Les-Bains, Req 94LY00232; CAA Nancy 8 Apr. 1999, Centre Hospitalier de Seclin, Req 94NC01660; CAA Paris 28 Dec. 1995, Bureau, Req 93PA00621; CAA Nancy 29 Jan. 1998, Kaluska, Req 93NC00137; CAA Marseille 17 Sept. 1998, Nicolet, Req 96MA01200.

(152) Law 2002–303 of 4 Mar. 2002, Gazette du Palais, 4 Apr. 2002, Bulletin Législatif 2002.113 (Loi relative aux droits des malades et à la qualité du système de soins). See generally C. Rade, ‘La Réforme de la Responsabilité Médicale après la loi du 4 Mars 2002 rélative aux droits des maladies et à la qualité du système de santé’ [2002] Responsabilité Civile et Assurances 4; Y. Lambert-Faivre, ‘La loi N^o 2002–303 du 4 mars 2002 relative aux droits des maladies et à la qualité du système de santé: L'indemnisation des accidents médicaux’, D.2002 Chroniques 1367, 1371; M. Deguergue, ‘Droits des Malades et Qualité du Système de Santé’, AJDA 2002.508.

(153) See Chap. 8, sect. 5.

(154) Art. L 1142–1 of the Code de la Santé Publique.

(155) Impliedly overturning the case law based approach.

(156) Art. L 1142–1(2) of the Code de la Santé Publique. This provision seems to have modified or, perhaps more accurately, extended the position of the administrative courts which had held that a strong presumption of fault applied in such circumstances: see further Chap. 4, sect. 3.3.

(157) See the provisions on product liability in the Code Civil, Arts. 1386–1 ff.

(158) Art. L 1142–1 of the Code de la Santé Publique.

(159) See Chap. 8, sect. 4.

(160) There has been some discussion whether these compensation funds are cases of no-fault liability or based purely upon considerations of equity or solidarity: J.-M. Pontier, ‘Sida et Responsabilité: Problèmes de Droit Public’, RFDA 1992.533; J. Bell, ‘Governmental Liability in Tort’ (1996) 6 NJCL 85, 92 .

(161) Law of 1 July 1964.

(162) Law of 31 Dec. 1991.

(163) D. Philipp, ‘De la Responsabilité à la Solidarité des Personnes Publiques’ RDP 1999.593; J. Moreau, La Responsabilité Administrative (2nd edn, Paris, 1995) 106 . See nn. 24 and 139 above.

(164) J. Moreau, La Responsabilité Administrative (2nd edn, Paris, 1995) 87–8 . See for instance the debate on whether those spheres of loss caused by public works and medical intervention covered by presumptions of fault should not be characterized as a type of no-fault liability: see Chap. 4, n. 493.

(165) Vedel has spoken of a ‘secret law’ which is fundamentally uncertain: cited in R. Errera, ‘The Scope and Meaning of No-Fault Liability in French Administrative Law’ (1986) 39 CLP 157, 173 .

(166) See Chap. 3, sect. 3.1.

(167) See Harlow, 104.

(168) See the text accompanying n. 81 above (French law) and pp. 40–1 above (English law).

(169) See Chap. 4, sect. 2.2.2.

(170) Markesinis and Deakin, 432.

(171) Markesinis and Deakin, 433. See Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather Plc [1994] 2 AC 264, 300 (hereinafter referred to as Cambridge Water).

(172) See Markesinis and Deakin, 434; Clerk & Lindsell, paras. 18–32.

(173) His Lordship emphasized that reasonable care will not of itself exonerate the defendant: Cambridge Water [1994] 2 AC 264, 300. See pp. 96–7 above.

(174) Ibid.

(175) Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd [1997] AC 655, 692 (nuisance). See Markesinis and Deakin, 437 and 503; Winfield and Jolowicz, para. 15.9.

(176) See the discussion in Chap. 4, sect. 2.2.2.

(177) Allen v Gulf Oil Ltd [1981] AC 1001, 1013.

(178) Ibid., 1023.

(179) Rylands v Fletcher (1868) LR 3 HL 330.

(180) Read v Lyons [1947] AC 156.

(181) The concept was described as ‘lacking in precision’ in Cambridge Water [1994] 2 AC 264, 308.

(182) Ibid.

(183) Northwestern Utilities v London [1936] AC 108. For CS gas see the discussion in Rigby v Chief Constable of Northamptonshire [1985] 1 WLR 1242.

(184) Rylands v Fletcher (1868) LR 3 HL 330.

(185) Richards v Lothian [1913] AC 263.

(186) DOT v North West Water Authority [1984] AC 336, 359–60.

(187) Charing Cross Electricity Supply Company v Hydraulic Power [1914] 3 KB 772.

(188) Dunne v North Western Gas Board [1964] 2 QB 806.

(189) See Craig, 884; Arrowsmith, 221.

(190) Allen v Gulf Oil Ltd [1981] AC 1001, 1013. See Craig, 881; Arrowsmith, 212.

(191) Craig, 884.

(192) Ibid.

(193) Winfield and Jolowicz, para. 15.11.

(194) Carstairs v Taylor (1871) LR 6 Ex 217.

(195) Richards v Lothian [1913] AC 263, 280.

(196) Dunne v North Western Gas Board [1964] 2 QB 806, 832.

(197) See Pride of Derby Angling v British Celanese [1953] Ch. 149, 189.

(198) Smeaton v Ilford Corp [1954] Ch. 450, 468–71, where Upjohn J would not accept the proposition that ‘a local authority is exempt from the principle of absolute liability on the ground that use of land for sewerage collection purposes is such a use as is proper for the general benefit of the community’.

(199) Cambridge Water [1994] 2 AC 264, 308–9.

(200) Clerk & Lindsell, para. 19–02; Winfield and Jolowicz, para. 15.3; Wade and Forsyth, 756–8. See the comments in A-G v Geothermal Produce Ltd [1987] 2 NZLR 348, 354 (Lord Cooke).

(201) See Wade and Forsyth, 757.

(202) Clerk & Lindsell, para. 19–03.

(203) Cambridge Water [1994] 2 AC 264, 305.

(204) See Chap. 4, sect. 2.2.2.

(205) [2002] 2 WLR 932. See also, for the question of measure of damages, Marcic v Thames Water Utilities Ltd (No 2) [2002] 2 WLR 1000.

(206) [2002] 2 WLR 932, 998.

(207) Ibid.

(208) (1990) 65 DR 250.

(209) [2002] 2 WLR 932, 999.

(210) Ibid., 998–9.

(211) See pp. 157–8 above.

(212) See further Chap. 4, sect. 2.2.2.

(213) See Chap. 4, sects. 2.1.2.4 and 2.2.1.3.

(214) [2002] 2 WLR 932, 999.

(215) See also the Consumer Protection Act 1987, which may apply to public authorities, e.g. A v National Blood Authority [2001] 3 All ER 289.

(216) See generally R. Hayward, Handbook of Land Compensation (London, 1995) chap. 22 ; K. Davies, Law of Compulsory Purchase and Compensation (5th edn, London, 1994) .

(217) Through physical factors caused by the public works, such as smell, noise, vibration, fumes: Land Compensation Act 1973, s 1.

(218) Ibid.

(219) See R. Hayward, Handbook of Land Compensation (London, 1995) para. 22–02 .

(220) Land Compensation Act 1973, s 1(6) and (7).

(221) Principally governed by the Land Compensation Act 1961 and the Compulsory Purchase Act 1965. See R. Hayward Handbook of Land Compensation (London, 1995) chap. 5 ; K. Davies, Law of Compulsory Purchase and Compensation (5th edn, London, 1994) .

(222) See Director of Buildings v Shun Fung Ironworks Ltd [1995] 2 AC 111.

(223) Burmah Oil v Lord Advocate [1964] 2 All ER 348.

(224) The HL referred to dicta in an earlier decision that ‘burdens borne for the good of the nation should be distributed over the whole nation’: Burmah Oil [1964] 2 All ER 348, 355.

(225) Criminal Justice Act 1988, s 133.

(226) Harlow, 154–6.

(227) W. van Gerven, J. Lever, and P. Larouche, Tort Law (Oxford, 2000) 392 .

(228) Note also that in negligence actions the (public law) lawfulness of the impugned administrative act traditionally provides protection to the defendant public authority. So, intra vires acts could not give rise to negligence liability—the defendant authority must have acted outside the scope of the statutory discretion (see pp. 42–3 above). However, Lord Hutton has recently suggested that negligence liability could arise from decisions which are within the ambit of a public body's discretion: Barrett [2001] 2 AC 550, 585 (see the discussion at p. 49 above).

(229) See the text accompanying n. 216 above.

(230) Harlow, 154–6. See the discussion in Chap. 8, sect. 4.

(231) For more discussion of the CICS see P. Cane, Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law (6th edn, London, 1999) chap. 12 .

(232) J.-M. Cotteret, ‘Le Régime de la Responsabilité pour Risques en Droit Administratif’ in Etudes de Droit Public (Paris, 1964) 391 .

(233) See nn. 35, 66, 85, and 120–123 above.

(234) Few claims arise from the risks of assisting in the public service (see n. 68 above) and from breach of égalité (n. 125 above).

(235) Especially now that state liability for legislation which breaches EC law is founded on fault liability: CAA Paris 1 July 1992, Dangeville [1992] Rec 558, overturned on different grounds in CE 30 Oct. 1996, Dangeville [1996] Rec 399.

(236) For instance, there is evidence that potential claimants under the CICS are unaware of their rights and fail to claim: P. Cane, Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law (London, 1999) 271 .

(237) See generally P. Craig, ‘Compensation in Public Law’ (1980) 96 LQR 413 ; C. Harlow, Compensation and Government Torts (London, 1982) ; Arrowsmith, 240–7; P. Hogg, ‘Compensation for Damage Caused by Government’ (1996) 6 NJCL 7 ; D. Cohen and J.-C. Smith, ‘Entitlement and the Body Politic: Rethinking Negligence in Public Law’ (1986) 64 Can. Bar Rev. 1 .

(238) H. Street, Governmental Liability: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, 1953) 78 .

(239) Wade and Forsyth, 757.

(240) Cohen and Smith, n. 237 above.

(241) P. Hogg, The Liability of the Crown (Melbourne, 1989) 116–17 .

(242) P. Hogg, ‘Compensation for Damage Caused by Government’ (1996) 6 NJCL 7, 11 ; C. Harlow, ‘Discretionary Power and Governmental Liability’ in Administrative Discretion and Problems of Accountability: Proceedings of 25th Colloquy on European Law (Oxford, 1997) .

(243) Arrowsmith, 246. See also P. Hogg, ‘Compensation for Damage Caused by Government’ (1996) 6 NJCL 7, 10 .

(244) Craig, 902.

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