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(p.349) Index

Act of State 14

actes d'autorité 13

actes de gouvernement 14

actio personalis moritur cum persona 227–8

action pour excès de pouvoir 29

actori incumbit probatio 120

adversarial procedures 266–7, 267–9

advice, misleading, see misrepresentations

agissements 29–30, 102

alternative means of redress:

compensation schemes, see compensation schemes

conciliation 241–2

ex gratia payments 244–60, 275

French Prime Minister's report on 240

internal procedures 250–1

Médiateur de la République 198, 242–4, 258, 260

ombudsman, see ombudsman

reform 275–7

reluctance of French civil servants, and 240–1

transaction 240

armed forces, liability of 14–15

assault and battery 16, 24, 101, 190

assumption of risk, see volenti non fit injura

bad faith, see misfeasance in public office

banking supervision:

England 87–93

France 109–10, 119–20

Barlow Clowes case 202, 247

battery, see assault and battery

Blanco case 12–13

blood, contaminated 108

Bolam test 50, 84–5

borstal boys 41–2

breach of duty of care:

Bolam test 50, 84–5

control mechanism, as 84–6

criteria 84–5

modulating standard of 85

professional standards 84–5, 279

reasonable man 84

shift from duty to breach 84–6, 279

breach of statutory duty 12, 36–41, 101, 124, 154, 167, 177, 195, 216

‘but-for’ test, see causation

causa sine qua non theory, see ‘but-for’ test

causation:

England:

act of nature 182–3

act of third party, and 174–5

‘but-for’ test 165–6

causa sine qua non theory, see ‘but-for’ test

cause in fact 165–6

cause in law 165–6

children, and 180

contributory negligence, and 177–82

‘inevitable consequence’, and 186

joint and several liability 175

loss of a chance 186, 203–10

multiple causes 173–83

novus actus interveniens 174

public procurement, and 186

regulatory bodies, and 174

unlawful administrative acts, and 183–7

volenti non fit injura 181

France:

act of nature 182–3

act of third party, and 175–6

adequacy test 169–71

assumption of risk 181–2

basic test 169

‘but-for’ test 171–2, 183–5

causal directness 169

causalité adequate 169–71

children, and 180

contributory fault of victim 177–82

joint and several liability, rejection of 175–6

multiple causes 173–83

nuanced approach 171–3

orthodox approach 168–71

planning, and 179–80

presumptions of causation 171

procedural impropriety, and 184–5

pro-defendant approach 170–1, 176, 178–82, 187–8

regulatory bodies, and 175–6

restrictive application of causation 170–1, 176, 178–82, 187–8

substitution of motives and legal basis (substitution de motifs ou bases légales) 183–4

théorie de l'équivalence des conditions 171–2

threshold and extent of causal responsibility 172–3

unitary conception of causation 168–9

(p.350) unlawful administrative acts, and 183–7

central government, see Crown

child care services, liability and 46–8, 68

Citizen's Charter 250

clinical negligence claims, see medical malpractice

collateral benefits, see personal injury actions

commissaire du gouvernement, role of 267

Commission Bancaire 109, 175–6, 200–1, 282–3

Commission for Local Administration, see ombudsman

Community Law, see European Community Law

comparative law:

English courts, and 269–70

French courts, and 270–1

functionality, and 3

mentality, and 2–3

reform, and 273–84

comparative legal methodology 2–4, 269–73

compensation schemes:

Benefits Agency 253

contaminated blood products, and 251–2

Department of Social Security scheme 253

French medical compensation system, see French medical compensation system

injury due to vaccination 252

miscarriage of justice 252

Prison Service 253

tax authorities, and 252

compulsory purchase 161

conciliation 241–2

Conseil d'Etat:

commissaire du gouvernement, role of 267

creation of 10

delay 202 n. 130, 238

expert reports (expertise) 123

inquisitorial procedure 122–4, 266–9

instruction 124

precedent 262

rapporteur, role of 267

style of judgments 34, 262 n. 14

contributory fault:

English law 177–82

French law 121, 143, 151, 177–82, 200, 227

Crown, liability in tort:

current position 12

historical position 8, 10–12

‘king can do no wrong’ 7–8

personal liability of Crown servants 23

Crown Office List (Administrative Court) 19

damage, see loss

damages:

basic principle 189

bereavement 231–2, 233

compensatory damages 189

exemplary damages 189–90

loss of amenity 220

measure of damages:

death, and 227–35

personal injury, and, see personal injury actions

nominal 189

personal injury, see personal injury

property loss 235–7

punitive damages 189–90

restitutio in integrum 189

restrictive approach in French law 191

‘sovereign power of assessment’ of French courts 190

types of 189

death:

date of assessment 231

dependency loss:

England 231–3

France 230–1

multiplier 219, 230, 232

secondary victims 228–35

survival actions 227–8

unmarried partners, and 229

décisions exécutoires 29

deliberate wrongdoing, see misfeasance in public office

détournement de pouvoir 31

Dicey 19

direct liability 71

discovery 123

discretion:

acting outside the scope of 42, 49–50

definition 45–6

duty of care:

economic loss, see pure economic loss

fair, just and reasonable 17, 63–86, 194

foreseeability 17, 68, 126

generally 17

incremental approach 17

nexus 70

policy issues, see policy concerns

proximity 63, 67

psychiatric injury 167–8, 214–15

public authorities:

new approach 77–86

traditional approach 64–7

shift to breach 84–6

(p.351) economic loss, see pure economic loss

education:

English governmental liability, and 39, 48, 66, 68–71, 215–16, 280, 281

French administrative liability, and 5, 129, 301–3

erreur de droit 31, 32, 34

erreur de fait 31, 34

erreur manifeste d'appréciation des faits 34

error of law 101

European Community Law:

damages for breach of, English law 51–3, 101–2

damages for breach of, French law 34

spill-over effects 101–2, 271–2

sufficiently serious breach 52, 92–3, 95, 101–2, 271–2

European Convention on Human Rights:

Conseil d'Etat, and 264

fair hearing, right to 71–7

impact on English law of state liability 71–7

see also human rights

European Court of Human Rights, see European Convention on Human Rights; human rights

Eurotort, see European Community Law

ex gratia payments 11, 162, 244–60, 275

execution of courts' judgments 190

failure to act, see omissions

fair hearing, right to, see human rights

fair, just and reasonable, see duty of care

false imprisonment 101

fault liability:

English law 58–101

French law:

as breach of an obligation 125–6

graded standards of fault, see faute lourde

similarity between English and French law 125–9

see also faute du service; faute lourde

faute de service:

faute personnelle, distinction from 21–3

generally 17–18, 21, 102–5

principle of autonomy, and 21–2

recursory actions, and 26–7

faute d'une gravité exceptionnelle 106

faute lourde:

administrative police 110–12

definition 113–14

emergency services 112–13

future of 118–20

generally 35, 106–20

medical sphere 106–8

regulatory authorities 108–10, 119–20

tax 110

theoretical foundations 114–18

faute manifeste et d'une particulière gravité 106

faute personnelle 21–3

fire brigades:

English governmental liability, and 39, 67

French administrative liability, and 112–13

French administrative law:

autonomous system of courts 1, 19

see also Conseil d'Etat

French medical compensation system 254–8

‘fresh damage’ test 11–12

functionality 3

German law, state liability 132

gross fault principle, see faute lourde

health and safety:

English governmental liability, and 41, 65, 194, 195

Health Services Commissioner 245

Hedley Byrne principle 180, 193–4

historical evolution of state liability 7–14

human rights:

damages for breach of 53–6

duty of care, and 71–7

fair hearing, right to 71–7

impact on state liability 71–7, 272

loss of a chance, and 210

negligence, and 71–7

nuisance, and 159–60

Human Rights Act 1998:

damages for breach of 53–6

see also human rights

illégalité = fault principle:

generally 28–35

relationship with faute lourde 114

illegality, see ultra vires

immunities:

historical position in England 7–14

historical position in France 7–14

fair, just and reasonable criterion, see duty of care

inquisitorial procedure 122–4, 266–9

instruction 124

invalidité permanente partielle 221

irrationality, see Wednesbury unreasonableness

irresponsabilité, see immunities

judicial acts:

English governmental liability, and 15

French administrative liability, and 5, 15

(p.352) judicial review:

action pour excès de pouvoir 29

liability, and 36–57

remedy of last resort 276

see also discretion

jurisdiction:

French administrative courts 5, 19–23

justiciability:

England 14, 59–63, 85

France 13

‘king can do no wrong’ 7–8

land compensation 202

lawfully caused loss:

generally 136–7

see also no-fault liability

legislation:

compensation, and 144

Local Government Ombudsman, see ombudsman

loss:

‘actuel’ loss in French law 191

‘certain’ loss in French law 190–1, 198, 206

‘direct’ loss in French law 169–71, 190–1

future loss in French law 191

liberal approach in French law 191

loss of a chance, see loss of a chance

mental harm in English law 214–17

moral harm, see moral harm

overview of English law 192

overview of French law 190–1

psychiatric harm 167–8, 214–15

pure economic loss, see pure economic loss

loss of a chance:

causation, relationship to 208

certainty of loss 206

control mechanisms in French law 206–7

doctrinal debate 207–10

generally 203–10

Human Rights Act 1998, and 210

lost chance as an autonomous head of loss 208

lost employment opportunity, and 205, 206–7

lost expectation of financial gain, and 205

medical negligence, and 203–6, 207–10

overview of English law 203–5

overview of French law 205–7

public procurement, and 210

maladministration 104, 186, 199, 206, 210, 242, 246

malicious prosecution 101

measure of damages, see damages

Médiateur de la République 198, 242–4, 258, 260

mediation 243, 244, 256

medical compensation system, see French medical compensation system

medical expenses, see damages

medical malpractice:

France 106–8, 121–2

generally 66

reform of 277

mental distress, recovery for 214–15

mentality, notion of, in respect of comparative law 2–3

methodology 2–4

military, liability of 14–15

miscarriages of justice 202

misfeasance and nonfeasance 99

misfeasance in public office:

bad faith 92–3

constituent elements 89–93

European influence, and 95

fair trial, and 88

generally 87–95

human rights influence, and 95

mental element 89–93

place in state liability 93–5

proximity 93–4, 95

pure economic loss 94, 195

ultra vires, and 51

misrepresentations 179, 194–5, 198, 201

moral harm:

control mechanisms in French law 213

generally 210–18

overview of English law 214–17

overview of French law 211–13

préjudice moral in French law 211–13

pretium affectionis 211–13

quantum in French law 213

restrictive French approach 211–12

negligence:

duty of care, see duty of care

generally 16–18

justiciability, see justiciability

overview 16–17

policy concerns, see policy concerns

‘policy-operational’ distinction 59–63, 85

standard of care, see breach of duty of care

nervous shock, see psychiatric injury

New Zealand 131

no-fault liability:

égalité devant les charges publiques:

‘abnormal’ loss 148

conditions 148–50

generally 137, 144

(p.353) liability arising from treaties 146

liability for lawful administrative acts 146–8

liability for legislative acts 144–6

medical liability 151–3

risk liability 138–44

risks arising from dangerous operations 138–42

risks arising from running of liberal prison and borstal regimes 139–42

risks of assisting in public service activities 142–4

‘special’ loss 149

non-judicial means of redress, see alternative means of redress

non-pecuniary loss:

bereavement damages 214

generally 214–17

loss of amenity 220

pain and suffering 220

novus actus interveniens, see causation

nuisance:

breach of strict duty, and 96–7

fault 96–7

foreseeability 96–7

generally 95–101, 155–6

human rights impact 98–101

private nuisance 95–6

public nuisance 95–6

reasonableness of defendant's behaviour 96

Rylands v Fletcher principle, and

standards of liability 96–7, 155–6

statutory authority 97

statutory nuisance clauses 97–8

ombudsman:

advantages of 248

Commission for Local Administration 245–9

‘injustice’, notion of 246

limitations of 249

Local Government Ombudsman, see Commission for Local Administration

maladministration 104, 186, 199, 206, 210, 242, 246

Médiateur, see Médiateur de la République

Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration 245–9

reform of 245 n. 61

omissions liability:

English governmental liability, and 128

French administrative liability, and 128–9

pain and suffering, see non-pecuniary loss

Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration, see ombudsman

personal injury actions:

basic principles 218–22

collateral benefits:

basic proposition 225

charitable payments 225

contributory negligence, and 227

generally 225–7

insurance payments 226–7

pensions, and 225

social security payments 225–6

comparative awards for 222–3

housewives, and 224, 234

hypothetical salary increases 223, 230

loss of amenity 220

loss of earnings 219–20, 223–4

medical expenses 219

minors, and 224

multiplier 219, 230

personal liability 23–7

Petition of Right 8

planning:

English governmental liability, and 66, 80, 81–2, 94

French administrative liability, and 147, 171, 179, 194–5, 196–7, 198, 199, 201–2, 203, 243, 247, 248, 264

police:

English governmental liability, and 39, 65, 71–2

French administrative liability, and 22–3, 139

policy concerns:

breach of statutory duty, and 37

comparative law view 129–35

negligence:

new approach 77–86, 277–8

traditional approach 64–7

‘policy–operational’ distinction 59–63

polycentric questions 267

post office, liability and 15

presumptions of fault in French law 120–2

prisoners 139–42

procedure of the courts:

adversarial 266–7, 267–9

commissaire du gouvernement, role of 267

expert reports (expertise) 123

inquisitorial procedure 122–4, 266–9

instruction 124

interlocutory proceedings 268–9

rapporteur, role of 267

product liability 153

property-based wrongs 8

proximity, see duty of care

(p.354) psychiatric injury, see duty of care

public law hurdles:

justiciability 14, 59–63, 85

ultra vires 36–57

Wednesbury unreasonableness 43–6, 57

public office, misfeasance in, see misfeasance in public office

public policy, see policy concerns

public procurement 186, 199, 206

public works:

see also travaux publics 160–1

punitive damages, see damages

pure economic loss:

alternative remedies in English law 201–2

causation, and 200

European Community Law 195–6

generally 192–3

Hedley Byrne principle 193–4

land compensation 202

limitations on recovery 197–201

misfeasance in public office, and 94, 195

ombudsman 201–2

overview of English law 193–6

overview of French law 196–7

policy issues, and 194–5

quantum of awards in French law 199

signs of convergence 197–203

reasonableness, notion of:

in damages claim and actions for judicial review 49–50

recklessness 90–3

reform:

alternative methods of redress 275–7

causation 281–3

policy concerns 277–8

standard of care 279

regulators 65–6, 200–1, 203, 282–3

remoteness of damage:

extent of damage 166–7

generally 166–7

Wagon Mound (No 1) case 166–7

resources, questions of, see ‘policy–operational’ distinction

restitutio in integrum, see damages

road traffic accidents 66

Rylands v Fletcher principle:

breach of strict duty, and 156

community benefit, notion of 157–8

general conditions 155

human rights influence 159–60

nuisance, and 155–6

reform of 158

statutory authority 156–7

separation of powers, France and 9–10

social welfare services, liability and 39, 46–8, 66, 68

solidarity 265

‘sovereign power of assessment’ of French courts 190

sovereignty, France and 9

state, notion of 5

statutory authority 15–16

strike-out applications:

generally 268

‘policy–operational’ distinction 60–3

substitution de motifs ou bases légales 183–4

substitution of motives and legal basis 183–4

tax authorities, liability of 110

teacher, liability of, see education

tort law, overview 16–18

travaux publics: 8, 9, 121, 129, 150, 155, 171, 178, 196–200, 236, 243

see also public works

troubles dans les conditions d'existence:

generally 220–1

invalidité permanente partielle, and 221

lost earnings, and 221

parsimony in calculating awards, for 220

ultra vires, liability, and 36–57

vicarious liability 12, 23–7, 70–1

vice de forme 31

violation de la chose jugée 31

voie de fait 5

volenti non fit injura 181

Wednesbury unreasonableness 43–6, 57