Экзамен зачет учебный год 2023 / Stoter, 3D Cadastre

1.1. Need for a 3D cadastre

respect to the third dimension, since current cadastral registration is adequate to give insight into these traditional property situations. The problems arise in 3D property situations.

3D property situations (in this thesis also abbreviated to ‘3D situations’) refer to situations in which di erent property units (with possibly di erent types of land use) are located on top of each other or constructed in even more complex structures, i.e. interlocking one another (see figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Example of 3D property situation.

In this thesis 3D property situations are also referred to as stratified properties. In 3D property situations several users are using an amount of space (volume), which is bounded in three dimensions. These volumes are positioned on top of each other, either all within one base parcel (the volumes are located in the same parcel column defined by the boundaries on the surface) or crossing base parcel boundaries. Real rights are established to entitle the di erent persons to the di erent volumes. A parcel is a separated piece of land, to which a person (or persons) is (are) entitled with a real right, such as right of ownership. Although, the ownership of land is not explicitly bounded in the third dimension, in most countries the ownership reaches as far as the owner has possible interest, while other persons are allowed to use space above and below a parcel as long as the user cannot reasonably object to this use (see figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3: An illustration of the spatial extent of the right of ownership to a parcel.

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Chapter 1. Introduction

Consequently, the geological subsurface may be very important for the factual demarcation of the third dimension of ownership. In areas with a solid geological subsurface, e.g. in most Scandinavian countries, a tunnel twenty-five meters below the surface will not cause any inconvenience to the owner of the surface parcel. Therefore such a construction may be allowed according to the concept of the right of ownership, while in countries with a ‘soft’ subsurface the space below the surface may be of much more interest for the owner of the surface parcel since subsurface activity may damage surface property.

To register 3D property situations in current cadastres, the legal status of 3D situations has to be translated in such a way that it can be registered in the current cadastral registration (see figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: How to register 3D situations in a 2D cadastral registration?

FIG Commission 7 (Cadastre and Land Management) produced a vision of where cadastral registrations might be in 2014 taking current trends into account, such as the changing relationship of humankind to land, the changing role of governments in society, the impact of technology on cadastral reform, the changing role of surveyors in society and the growing role of the private sector in the operation of the cadastre [54]. The study resulted in the following six statements on Cadastre 2014 based on a four-year process involving input from many countries world-wide:

•Cadastre 2014 will show the complete legal situation of land, including public rights and restrictions.

•The separation between ‘maps’ and ‘registers’ will be abolished.

•Cadastral modelling will take over cadastral mapping.

•Paper-and-pencil cadastre will disappear.

•Cadastre 2014 will be highly privatised and public and private sector will work closely together.

•Cadastre 2014 will be cost recovering.

Although the statement on Cadastre 2014 does not mention 3D cadastre explicitly, the report emphasises that cadastres in the future will no longer be based on or restricted to (2D) cadastral maps. Future cadastres will show the complete (thus also in

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1.2. Research scope

all dimensions) legal situation of land, including public rights and restrictions. Also demands from practise will get growing influence on cadastral registration in the future. These aspects motivate the study of the 3D issues of cadastral registration in a broad, integrated view. The result of such a broad integrated approach is that all rights, restrictions and responsibilities related to land, often overlapping, are considered. This include many more aspects than would traditionally be of interest of and be recorded in a cadastral registration [212].

The Netherlands’ Kadaster has the responsibility for cadastral registration in the Netherlands. Until now the Netherlands’ Kadaster has been able to register 3D situations within current registration possibilities. Are these registration-methods su - cient to fulfil the main tasks of a cadastral registration, i.e. to register the legal status of real estate and to provide insight into the legal status of real estate?

Since a few situations have occurred (and more are expected in the future) which could not be registered unambiguously and clearly in the cadastral registration, the discussion started on what to do with 3D situations. To support this discussion the Netherlands’ Kadaster and the TU Delft took the initiative to start a research on 3D cadastral registration to study the needs, constraints and possibilities of a 3D cadastre. This thesis is the result of this research which was carried out at TU Delft in collaboration with the Netherlands’ Kadaster.

1.2Research scope

The scope of research on 3D cadastre is demarcated by three frameworks which determine the needs, constraints and possibilities for 3D cadastral registration. These frameworks are linked to each other in a hierarchical order:

•Juridical framework: how can the legal status of stratified properties be established? how to establish property boundaries other than traditional 2D parcel boundaries? what rights can be used and how can these rights be used?

•Cadastral framework: once the legal status of property in 3D situations has been established and described in deeds and in field works that are archived in the land registration, the next issues are how to register the rights and restrictions to property (bounded in three dimesnions) in the cadastral registration and how to provide information on the legal status of 3D property situations?

•Technical framework: what system architecture (computer hardware, software, data structures) is needed to support cadastral registration in 3D situations? what architecture is technologically possible?

This thesis will focus mainly on the cadastral and technical framework.

1.2.1Topics within the scope of this thesis

Several fundamental considerations outline the scope of this thesis as follows:

•Current cadastral registration (in combination with current land registration) serves its purposes well in most (2D) situations and it has a good foundation

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Chapter 1. Introduction

in today’s society based on long history. It is therefore not feasible to think of a 3D cadastre totally outside the current juridical and cadastral framework. This does not mean that (feasible) adjustments in the framework cannot lead to improvements. Therefore the precondition of this thesis is to start with the current cadastral registration and to see where this registration su ces and where it needs improvements (extensions) in case of 3D situations. This precondition imposes special demands on this research to 3D cadastre, since the 3D cadastre should fit to some extent within the current juridical, cadastral and technical framework.

•Although generalities on 3D registration are addressed, this thesis focuses on cadastral registration in particular.

•Disseminating information via the Internet is important in today’s society. Therefore the cadastral registration that is considered should fit in a GeoInformation Infrastructure (GII).

•This thesis focuses in the first place on cadastral registration in the Netherlands. Since cadastral registration abroad has similar fundamental characteristics, the main conclusions drawn in this thesis are extendible in (a limited way) to other cadastral registrations. However, it should be noted that many minor di erences are present between cadastral registrations in di erent countries due to di erent legislation and di erent implementation history.

•Cadastral registrations in other countries will be considered in order to examine the need for 3D registration in other countries, to see if and how other countries solve the problem of 3D cadastral registration and to come to more general (not only valid for the Dutch situation) conclusions.

•Both cadastral and technical issues will be addressed. Cadastral issues deal with the main tasks of the cadastre in 3D situations and technical issues determine how these cadastral issues can be implemented.

•Since a DBMS (DataBase Management System) is an essential part of the architecture that is capable of maintaining large amounts of (spatial) data such as in cadastral registration, a main issue of this thesis is how to model 3D geo-objects (topologically and geometrically) in a DBMS.

•The cadastral registration must provide access to a wide spectrum of users (citizens, real estate agents, notaries, GIS/CAD specialists). Therefore another major issue is how the cadastral DBMS can be made accessible for users.

•With respect to 3D GIS, e cient methods for geometric construction, data structuring, organisation of 2D and 3D data in one environment, database creation and updating have yet to be developed. This thesis will give considerations and preliminary solutions for these issues.

•The main focus of this thesis is to give technical solutions and technical recommendations to implement a 3D cadastre. For this purpose the needs for a 3D cadastre in general are studied and translated into technical needs. Current (commercially available) techniques are tested to evaluate if they are able to meet these needs. If fundamental solutions are not provided by commercially available techniques, concepts are designed which are tested by translating the concepts into prototypes.

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1.3. Research approach

1.2.2Topics outside the scope of this thesis

Topics that are not within the scope of this thesis can be described as:

•It is not the aim of this thesis to provide solutions for 3D registration for any cadastre outside the Netherlands, although cadastres in other countries can use the findings of this thesis that address general issues of cadastral registration in 3D situations.

•Juridical issues will be addressed in this thesis, but will be merely used as preconditions. It is not the aim of this thesis to give recommendations on (major) changes of the legal system in the Netherlands. However the experiences and findings in this thesis may lead to recommendations for developments and further research on juridical issues.

•This thesis does not intend to develop an operational 3D cadastral registration, since this is not considered feasible at this stage, in which many issues still need to be resolved and in which choices need to be made on where to go to. This thesis firstly aims at a clear definition of the problem, a development of concepts and validation and evaluation of the concepts by prototyping key aspects.

•Functionality of 3D cadastral registration is the main topic of this research. Performance testing and benchmarking with respect to 3D cadastral registration or other information systems are therefore not part of this research.

•This thesis addresses cadastral registration in particular and will therefore not address topographical or other registrations.

1.3Research approach

In this section the research objectives and the research methods that were used to achieve these objectives are explained.

1.3.1Research objectives

The main objective of this thesis is to answer the question how to record 3D situations in cadastral registration in order to improve insight into 3D situations. The emphasis of this thesis is on the technical aspects of cadastral registration. To realise this objective, this thesis concentrates on four di erent topics:

•Analysis of the background. This part focuses on identifying problems of current cadastral registration concerning 3D situations, both in the Netherlands and abroad, in order to get insight into the needs and requirements for 3D cadastral registration and in order to structure the national and international discussion on 3D cadastre.

•Framework for modelling 2D and 3D situations. In this part techniques are explored that are needed for a 3D cadastre:

–How to model 2D and 3D geo-objects in a DBMS which is the core of the new generation GIS architecture?

–What is the state-of-the-art of 3D GIS?

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Chapter 1. Introduction

–How to access and analyse 3D geo-objects organised in a geo-DBMS?

–How to combine 2D parcels and 3D geo-objects in one environment?

•Models for a 3D cadastre. In this part conceptual models are designed based on current registration and based on available techniques in order to improve 3D cadastral registration. Also considerations are given for translating the conceptual models of a 3D cadastre into logical models.

•Realisation of a 3D cadastre. The proposed conceptual models are evaluated by translating conceptual alternatives into prototype implementations using techniques explored and developed as part of this thesis and by performing functional tests. Performance tests are not part of this thesis.

1.3.2Research methods

To answer the research questions, the following research methods are used.

Analysis of the background

“What are the actual needs for 3D registration?” is the first important topic of this research. To answer this question a literature study will be carried out to come to a list of types of cadastral recordings with a possible 3D component. To conclude on the actual complications of current registration of 3D situations in the Netherlands, six (national) case-studies will be carried out. To get insight also into the needs for cadastral registration abroad, the question will be addressed “how are 3D situations internationally registered and do other countries meet the same problems?” To answer these questions an international workshop on 3D cadastres was organised. Knowledge obtained during this workshop supplemented with literature study will be presented. During a working visit to Aalborg, Denmark, the Danish cadastral registration in case of 3D situations has been examined. In collaboration with Queensland Government, Australia, also a case study in Brisbane, Queensland has been carried out. The results of both case studies will be described.

Framework for modelling 2D and 3D situations

How geometrical primitives and topology structure can be modelled both in 2D and 3D in a DBMS and what is the current state-of-the-art of 3D GIS are the next topics. The description of the state-of-the-art of 3D GIS is a result of literature study. Answer to the first question is basically a result of carrying out experiments with current DBMSs and with new developments designed and implemented as part of this research. The same approach will be followed to find out how 3D geo-information stored in a geoDBMS can be accessed by front-ends. Experiments will also be carried out to explore fundamental issues of combining 2D parcels and 3D geo-objects in one environment.

Models for a 3D cadastre.

The main question in this research is how can current cadastral registration be improved in case of 3D situations? To answer this question conceptual modelling for 3D cadastre will be carried out based on the findings of the analysis of the background and of the analysis of the technological possibilities of modelling 2D and 3D situations.

Realisation of a 3D cadastre.

The conceptual models will be translated into prototype implementations. In experiments in which the prototype implementations will be applied to the case studies,

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1.4. Previous and related research

the conceptual models for a 3D cadastre will be evaluated. The experiments with the prototypes will also lead to conclusions on how to realise an e ective 3D cadastre.

1.4Previous and related research

Related research to this thesis, which focuses on cadastral and technical aspects of a 3D cadastre, can be divided into research on 3D cadastral registration and research on 3D tools and 3D modelling.

1.4.1Related research on 3D cadastres

Israel is one of the countries which faces high pressure on the use of land. This has promoted developments for a 3D cadastre. Therefore in Israel for the past five years several studies have started on 3D cadastres [9, 57, 58, 63, 64] (see also section 4.8).

Mid European countries such as Ukraine [116], Hungary [161], Czech Republic [81] and Slovenia [170] are in the phase of examining the current cadastre for potential registration of 3D property units, including apartments.

International marine cadastres traditionally have a 3D approach, as the use of the marine environment is volumetric by nature and involves rights to the surface, water column, seabed and subsoil. The University of New Brunswick (Canada), Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering is developing a 3D marine cadastre to support e ective and e cient decision making associated with marine governance [126, 232]. In [60] the framework issues are discussed that must be considered in the development of marine cadastral data and the use of these data in a marine information system for the United States. In this discussion 3D aspects are also addressed.

Some other countries and states have already solved part of 3D cadastral registration (Norway, Sweden, Queensland and British Columbia), as will be seen from the study on 3D cadastral registration abroad (chapter 4).

1.4.2Related research on 3D tools and 3D modelling

3D registration deals with maintaining spatial and non-spatial information on 3D objects, which are core topics of 3D GIS. Therefore developments in 3D GIS are important when examining a 3D registration.

The main characteristic of researches on 3D models intended for 3D GIS and 3D geo-DBMSs, is that they are extensive and that the results of these researches are fragmented. Examples of 3D models intended for 3D GIS and 3D geo-DBMSs are [56, 94, 119, 168, 169, 184]. Implementations of 3D models in user-developed systems can be found in [19, 147, 181, 227].

Research on spatial querying and 3D visualisation of geo-objects using Web technologies has resulted in several prototype systems [13, 31, 35, 96, 104, 240]. Research on spatial querying and 3D visualisation of geo-objects organised in a DBMS has not yet

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Chapter 1. Introduction

resulted in any publications, apart from publications that were written as part of this research.

Since developments in 3D GIS are important when studying the possibilities for a 3D cadastre, a section is included in this thesis which describes the current state-of-the- art of 3D GIS (section 8.1).

1.5Contribution of the work

The main contributions of this work can be summarised as follows:

•Enabling a complex registration addresses many issues in a variety of disciplines (technical, cadastral, juridical, organisational). This thesis is the first extensive research on 3D cadastres in which the problem of registration in complex situations has been studied using an integrated approach. Therefore this thesis has strong explorative characteristics resulting in a clear analysis as well as a distinct definition of the essential problems of registering 3D situations in current cadastres taking all involved disciplines into account.

•This thesis structures the national and international discussion on the need for 3D cadastre by providing a universal overview of the basic and fundamental needs for a 3D cadastre, considered from di erent points of view (juridical, cadastral, technical) and by providing insight into country-specific aspects which influence the need for and possibilities of 3D cadastral registration.

•This thesis gives solution-directions for a 3D cadastre. Several models for a 3D cadastre will be introduced and translated into prototype implementations. Experience with the prototypes will result in concrete recommendations. Based on these recommendations, decision-makers will be able to base choices on if and how to implement a 3D registration on fundamental considerations.

•In technical respect, the outcomes of this research contribute to 3D GIS in general, i.e. how to model and maintain 3D geo-objects in a DBMS, how to access and query these objects by front-ends and how to combine 3D geo-objects and 2D geo-objects in one 3D environment. With respect to improving 3D GIS functionalities, an extension of a geo-DBMS has been built to support 3D primitives. Also a study was carried out to generate an appropriate integrated height model in a TIN (Triangular Irregular Network) structure based on both the 2D planar partition of parcels and point heights.

•This work contributes to supporting the demand for 3D geo-information in today’s society in general. Other organisations responsible for (spatial) registrations and for spatial data sets can use the outcomes of this work to see the possibilities and constraints to extend their systems into the third dimension (e.g. registrations for cultural heritage, for buildings, for zoning plans, for cables and pipelines, and databases of topographical mapping agencies).

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1.6. Organisation of the thesis

1.6Organisation of the thesis

Chapter 1 (this chapter) presents the need for a 3D cadastre, specifies the objectives, the scope and the contributions of this research and describes related research. The main body of this thesis, apart from the introduction (chapter 1) and conclusions (chapter 13), is divided into four major parts corresponding with the four main research topics of this thesis as described in section 1.3.1.

1.Part I: Analysis of the background (chapters 2, 3, 4, 5)

2.Part II: Framework for modelling 2D and 3D situations (chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9)

3.Part III: Models for a 3D cadastre (chapters 10 and 11)

4.Part IV: Realisation of a 3D cadastre (chapter 12)

Readers who are familiar with cadastral registration with respect to the 3D component and are less interested in a detailed study on needs for 3D cadastral registration may skip part I. Readers who are familiar with spatial modelling in DBMSs both in 2D and 3D and with accessing this information with front-ends or the reader who is not interested in technical issues of 3D cadastral registration may skip part II. The introduction and evaluation of new conceptual data models for 3D cadastral registration is described in part III and part IV.

Chapter 2 gives an overview of the types of cadastral recordings in the Netherlands with a potential 3D component. The aim of this chapter is to get a clear view on the cadastral domain on which the 3D cadastral research should focus. For what types of cadastral recordings should a 3D approach of registration be considered? Cadastral registration is in this chapter subdivided into cadastral registration according to Private Law and cadastral registration according to Public Law. The chapter starts with a description of common alternatives of cadastral registrations, followed with an introduction into the cadastral registration of the Netherlands’ Kadaster.

Chapter 3 describes the results of six case studies which were carried out to indicate the complexities of registering 3D situations within the current Dutch cadastral registration. Three case studies were selected based on multilevel building complexes in urban areas that interact with other land use, such as roads and railways. The other three case studies were selected based on subsurface infrastructure objects. The basic purpose of cadastral registration of building complexes is to provide insight into the property units within the building complex. The basic purpose of cadastral registration of infrastructure objects is to register the person who is responsible for the infrastructure object. The case studies resulted in findings which describe the limitations of current cadastral registration and the actual needs for a 3D cadastre.

Chapter 4 presents the results of a study abroad. To see if this thesis can learn from international developments and to place this research in an international context, countries abroad were examined. Six countries and states in which the discussion on 3D cadastre has already started or that have solved (part) of the problem of 3D cadastral registration were examined: Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Queensland (Australia), British Colombia (Canada), and Israel. The results of the study abroad are reported in chapter 4.

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Chapter 1. Introduction

Chapter 5 elaborates on the needs and opportunities for a 3D cadastre based on the findings described in chapters 2, 3 and 4.

Chapter 6 aims at clarifying some basic terms and concepts concerning spatial data modelling that are used and applied in this thesis. Data models and in specific characteristics of spatial models are described, followed by a description of the basic phases of data modelling. UML (Unified Modelling Language) is used in this thesis to describe the data models. The basic characteristics of UML are explained. How the relationship between spatial data modelling and DBMSs has evolved is also discussed. The chapter ends with a description of standardisation initiatives.

Chapter 7 discusses the state-of-the-art of DBMSs in the new generation GIS architecture: how spatial objects can be maintained in a geo-DBMS using both a structure of geometrical primitives and a topological structure. Spatial analyses on both structures are considered as well. The chapter also contains a section describing the implementation of a 3D primitive in a DBMS, a study which was carried out as part of this thesis.

As described in chapter 7, geo-DBMSs are the core of the new generation GIS architecture. 3D GIS is a basic instrument to deal with 3D geo-information in general. Therefore the state-of-the-art of 3D GIS aspects other than geo-DBMSs is discussed in chapter 8. Chapter 8 reports also the results of a research that was carried out to access (query and visualise) 3D objects that are organised in a geo-DBMS. For this research three front-ends were studied: a CAD oriented system, a GIS system and a self-implemented system using Web based techniques.

Chapter 9 deals with the fundamental issue of combining 3D geo-objects (3D cadastral objects) and 2D geo-data (parcels) into one system: how to relate the two data sets in space. A case study was carried out to show possibilities and problems of integrating a 3D geo-object (pipeline) and surface parcels in one environment. TINs, representing integrated height models of point heights and parcels, that were created during this case study, are described together with their data structure and their results. The TINs are inserted in the DBMS which makes it possible to perform spatial analyses on height surfaces of (individual) parcels. In order to obtain a more e ective height model, a generalisation method was developed and is described in this chapter. This method has partly been implemented in a prototype. The prototype selects only the significant TIN-nodes while removing the non-significant TIN-nodes. Results of the prototype are also reported.

Chapter 10 introduces three concepts for a 3D cadastre, each with di erent alternatives, which were designed as part of this research. Based on both cadastral and technical considerations two of these three concepts were selected as most optimal solution for a 3D cadastre: a hybrid 3D cadastre (with two alternatives) and a full 3D cadastre (only one alternative).

Chapter 11 considers issues that come with translating the conceptual models that were introduced in chapter 10 into logical models: issues concerning the spatial data model, the administrative data model, as well as the process of data collection to obtain data that can be inserted into the spatial data models. Also 4D requirements of a 3D cadastre that need to be taken into account in the phase of logical modelling are considered.

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