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Московский государственный юридический университет им. О.Е. Кутафина

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Экзамен зачет учебный год 2023 / Dixon, Principles of Land Law

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Contents

1.6THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN REGISTERED

AND UNREGISTERED LAND		16
1.6.1	Registered land	16
1.6.2	Unregistered land	17

1.7A DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION

	OF THE 1925 PROPERTY LEGISLATION	19
	SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1	21
2	REGISTERED LAND	25
2.1	INTRODUCTION	25

2.2THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE SYSTEM

OF REGISTERED LAND	27
2.2.1 Under the Land Registration Act 2002	29

2.3THE SO CALLED ‘THREE PRINCIPLES’ OF

REGISTERED LAND		30
2.3.1	The mirror principle	30
2.3.2	The curtain principle	31
2.3.3	The insurance principle	32

2.4AN OVERVIEW OF THE REGISTERED LAND SYSTEM

UNDER THE LAND REGISTRATION ACT 1925

2.4.1Registrable interests (including titles) under the Land

	Registration Act 1925	34
2.4.2	Registered charges	35
2.4.3	Overriding interests	36
2.4.4	Minor interests	37
2.5 THE OPERATION OF REGISTERED LAND: TITLES		38
2.5.1	Absolute title	39
2.5.2	Good leasehold title	40
2.5.3	Possessory title	40
2.5.4	Qualified title	41
2.5.5 The new owner or mortgagee (the purchaser)		41
2.5.6	The third party	41

Contents

2.6THE OPERATION OF REGISTERED LAND:

OVERRIDING INTERESTS

2.6.1 Easements and profits: s 70(1)(a)
of the Land Registration Act 1925	44

2.6.2Rights in the nature of public or residual feudal

obligations: s 70(1)(b), (c), (d), (e) of the Land
Registration Act 1925	46
2.6.3 Adverse possession: s 70(1)(f) of the Land
Registration Act 1925	46

2.6.4Rights and actual occupation: s 70(1)(g) of the Land

Registration Act 1925

2.6.5Legal leases for 21 years or less: s 70(1)(k) of the

Land Registration Act 1925

2.6.6Further overriding interests under s 70(1) of the Land

Registration Act 1925

2.6.7The bindingness of overriding interests under the

Land Registration Act 1925	53
2.7 THE OPERATION OF REGISTERED LAND:
MINOR INTERESTS UNDER THE LAND
REGISTRATION ACT 1925	60
2.7.1 Restriction: s 58 of
the Land Registration Act 1925	61
2.7.2 Inhibition: s 57 of
the Land Registration Act 1925	61
2.7.3 Notice: s 49 of
the Land Registration Act 1925	62
2.7.4 Caution: ss 54, 55, 56 of
the Land Registration Act 1925	62
2.7.5 Enforcing minor interests	63
2.8 THE OPERATION OF REGISTERED LAND:
OVERREACHING	68
2.8.1 The right must be capable of being overreached	69
2.8.2 The statutory conditions for overreaching
must be fulfilled	69
2.8.3 The consequences of failing to overreach	71
2.9 RECTIFICATION OF THE REGISTER	72

	Contents

2.10 INDEMNITY UNDER THE LAND REGISTRATION
	ACT 1925	75
2.11	AN OVERVIEW OF THE LAND REGISTRATION
	ACT 2002	78
	SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2	81
3	UNREGISTERED LAND	85

3.1INTRODUCTION TO THE SYSTEM OF UNREGISTERED

CONVEYANCING: UNREGISTERED LAND	86
3.1.1 What is unregistered land?	86
3.2 AN OVERVIEW OF UNREGISTERED LAND	86
3.2.1 Estates in unregistered land	86
3.2.2 Interests in unregistered land: rights over
another person’s estate	87
3.2.3 Legal rights	87
3.2.4 Equitable rights which are registrable
under the Land Charges Act 1972	88
3.2.5 Equitable rights which are not registrable under
the Land Charges Act 1972 because they
are subject to overreaching	88
3.2.6 Equitable rights which are neither overreachable
nor registrable under the Land Charges Act 1972	88
3.3 TITLES IN UNREGISTERED LAND	89
3.4 THIRD PARTY RIGHTS IN UNREGISTERED LAND	90

3.5THE PURCHASER OF UNREGISTERED LAND

AND THE PROTECTION OF LEGAL RIGHTS

3.6THE PURCHASER OF UNREGISTERED LAND AND THE PROTECTION OF EQUITABLE RIGHTS:

THE LAND CHARGES ACT 1972

3.6.1The classes of registrable charge under

the Land Charges Act 1972	95
3.6.2 The effect of registering a land charge	98

3.6.3The consequences of failing to register

a registrable land charge in general

100

xii

Contents

	3.6.4	The voidness rule	101
	3.6.5	Other registers	103
3.7	OVERREACHABLE RIGHTS		104
3.8	A RESIDUAL CLASS OF EQUITABLE INTERESTS		106
3.9	INHERENT PROBLEMS IN THE SYSTEM
	OF UNREGISTERED LAND		108
3.10 A COMPARISON WITH REGISTERED LAND			109
	SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 3		111
4	CO-OWNERSHIP		115

4.1THE NATURE AND TYPES OF CONCURRENT

	CO-OWNERSHIP		116
4.2	JOINT TENANCY		116
	4.2.1	The right of survivorship (the ius accrescendi)	117
	4.2.2	The four unities	117
4.3	TENANCY IN COMMON		118

4.4THE EFFECT OF THE LAW OF PROPERTYACT 1925 AND THE TRUSTS OF LAND AND APPOINTMENT

OF TRUSTEES ACT 1996		119
4.4.1	Before 1 January 1926	120
4.4.2	On or after 1 January 1926	120

4.5THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN JOINT TENANCY AND TENANCY IN COMMON IN PRACTICE:

THE EQUITABLE INTEREST

122

4.6 THE STATUTORY MACHINERY AND
THE OPERATION OF CO-OWNERSHIP	123

4.7THE NATURE OF THE UNSEVERABLE LEGAL JOINT

TENANCY: THE TRUST OF LAND

124

4.8THE ADVANTAGES OF THE 1925 AND 1996

LEGISLATIVE REFORMS

127

4.9THE DISADVANTAGES OF THE TRUST OF LAND AS A

DEVICE FOR REGULATING CO-OWNERSHIP	129
4.9.1 Disputes as to sale	129

xiii

Contents

4.9.2	When is it likely that a court will order sale?	131
4.9.3	The special case of bankruptcy	132

4.9.4The position of a purchaser who buys

	co-owned land: when overreaching occurs	134
4.9.5	If consents are required	135
4.9.6	If consents are not initially required	137
4.9.7	When overreaching does not occur	137

4.9.8The position of the equitable owners:

problems and proposals

139

4.9.9The position of the equitable owners faced with

overreaching: the problem in perspective	141
4.9.10 The question of possession	142
4.9.11 The payment of rent	143
4.9.12 A summary of the Trusts of Land and
Appointment of Trustees Act 1996	143

4.10THE EXPRESS AND IMPLIED CREATION OF CO-OWNERSHIP IN PRACTICE: EXPRESS,

RESULTING AND CONSTRUCTIVE TRUSTS	144
4.10.1 Express creation	144

4.10.2Creation of co-ownership even though

	the legal title is in one name only	146
4.10.3	Establishing the equitable interest	146
4.10.4	The express trust	147

4.10.5The immediate, the deferred and the indirect

	‘purchase money’ resulting trust	147
4.10.6	The constructive trust	149
4.10.7	Where there is no interest	151

4.10.8The nature of the interest established: joint

tenancy or tenancy in common	153
4.11 SEVERANCE	153

4.11.1	By statutory notice: s 36(2) of
	the Law of Property Act 1925	154
4.11.2	By an act operating on his own share	155

4.11.3Where joint tenants agree to sever by

‘mutual agreement’	155
4.11.4 By mutual conduct	156
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4	157

xiv

Contents

5	SUCCESSIVE INTERESTS IN LAND	163
5.1	WHAT IS SUCCESSIVE OWNERSHIP OF LAND?	163
5.2	SUCCESSIVE INTERESTS: IN GENERAL	163

5.2.1Successive interests under the Trusts of Land

and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996

164

5.3SUCCESSIVE INTERESTS UNDER THE OLD REGIME:

THE STRICT SETTLEMENT		168
5.3.1	The essential characteristics of settled land	169
5.3.2	The specific attributes of settled land	169

5.3.3The creation of strict settlements under the Settled

Land Act 1925

170

5.3.4The position of the tenant for life and

the statutory powers

170

5.3.5The role of the trustees of the settlement in

	regulating the powers of the tenant for life	171
5.3.6	The fiduciary position of the tenant for life	172
5.3.7	Attempts to restrict the
	powers of the tenant for life	172
5.3.8	Protection for the beneficiaries	173
5.3.9	Protection for the purchaser of settled land	174
5.3.10	The overreaching machinery	174
5.3.11	The duties of the trustees of the settlement	174
5.4 THE TRUST OF LAND		175

5.5A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE OLD STRICT SETTLEMENT UNDER THE SETTLED LAND ACT 1925 AND THE NEW TRUSTS OF LAND AND

	APPOINTMENT OF TRUSTEES ACT 1996 REGIME		175
	SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5		177
6	LEASES		181
6.1	THE NATURE OF A LEASE		181
6.2	THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A LEASE		183
	6.2.1	Exclusive possession	183
	6.2.2 For a term certain		189
	6.2.3	Periodic tenancies	190

Contents

6.2.4 Statutory provisions concerning certain terms		190
6.2.5	Rent	191
6.3 THE CREATION OF LEGALAND EQUITABLE LEASES		192
6.3.1	Introductory points	192
6.3.2	Legal leases	192
6.3.3	Equitable leases	195

6.3.4The differences between legal

and equitable leases	198
6.4 LEASEHOLD COVENANTS	200

6.4.1The separate nature of the ‘benefit’

	of a covenant and the ‘burden’ of a covenant	201
6.4.2	Two sets of rules concerning the
	enforceability of leasehold covenants	201

6.5RULES FOR LEASES GRANTED

BEFORE 1 JANUARY 1996

202

6.5.1Liability between the original landlord and

the original tenant: the general rule

202

6.5.2The continuing liability of the original tenant

throughout the entire term of the lease

202

6.5.3The continuing rights and obligations of the original

landlord throughout the term of the lease

206

6.5.4The assignment of the lease to a new tenant for

pre-1996 leases

206

6.5.5The claimant and defendant must be

	in ‘privity of estate’	207
6.5.6	The covenant must ‘touch and concern’ the land	208
6.5.7	Special rules	209

6.5.8The assignment of the reversion to a new

	landlord under pre-1996 tenancies	209
6.5.9	Section 141 of the Law of Property Act 1925:
	the benefit of the original landlord’s covenants	210
6.5.10 Section 142 of the Law of Property Act 1925:
	the burden of the original landlord’s covenants	210
6.5.11	Special rules	211
6.5.12 Equitable leases and equitable
	assignments of legal leases	212
6.5.13 The original landlord and tenant		213

xvi

Contents

6.5.14The assignment of the reversion of an

	equitable lease to a new landlord	213
6.5.15 The assignment of the equitable
	lease to a new tenant	213
6.5.16	The position of subtenants	217
6.5.17	The Law Commission and proposals for reform	218

6.6THE NEW SCHEME: THE LAW APPLICABLE TO TENANCIES GRANTED ON OR AFTER

1 JANUARY 1996; THE LANDLORD AND

TENANT (COVENANTS) ACT 1995		219
6.6.1 General principles of the 1995 Act		219
6.6.2 The tenant’s position in more detail		220
6.6.3	An assessment of the landlord’s position	223
6.6.4	To sum up	224

6.7THE LANDLORD’S REMEDIES FOR BREACH

OF COVENANT		225
6.7.1	Distress	225
6.7.2 Action for arrears of rent		225
6.7.3	Action for damages	226
6.7.4 Injunction and specific performance		226
6.7.5	Forfeiture	227
6.7.6	General considerations	227
6.7.7 Forfeiture for non-payment of rent		228

6.7.8Principles for granting discretionary

relief for non-payment of rent

230

6.7.9Forfeiture for breach of covenants

other than to pay rent	230
6.8 THE TENANT’S REMEDIES FOR
BREACH OF COVENANT	235
6.8.1 Damages for breach of covenant	235
6.8.2 Action for an injunction	235
6.8.3 Action for specific performance	235
6.8.4 Retention of future rent	236
6.9 TERMINATION OF LEASES	236
6.9.1 By effluxion of time	236
6.9.2 By forfeiture	236

xvii

	Contents

6.9.3	By notice	237
6.9.4	By merger	237
6.9.5	By surrender	237
6.9.6	By enlargement	238
6.9.7	By disclaimer	238
6.9.8	By frustration	238
6.9.9 By repudiatory breach of contract		238
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6		239
7 THE LAW OF EASEMENTS		245

7.1THE NATURE OF EASEMENTS

AS INTERESTS IN LAND

245

7.2THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS

	OF AN EASEMENT	245
	7.2.1 There must be a dominant and a servient tenement	246
	7.2.2 The separation of the dominant
	and servient tenement	246
	7.2.3 The alleged easement must accommodate
	the dominant tenement	247
	7.2.4 The alleged easement must ‘be capable
	of forming the subject matter of a grant’	248
	7.2.5 Public policy	250
7.3 LEGAL AND EQUITABLE EASEMENTS: FORMALITIES		251
7.4	LEGAL EASEMENTS	251
	7.4.1 Easements created by statute	252
	7.4.2 Easements created by prescription	252
	7.4.3 Easements created by deed/registered disposition	252
7.5	EQUITABLE EASEMENTS	252

7.6THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN LEGAL AND EQUITABLE EASEMENTS

IN PRACTICE: EASEMENTS AND PURCHASERS
OF THE DOMINANT OR SERVIENT TENEMENT		254
7.6.1	Registered land	255
7.6.2	Unregistered land	258
7.7 THE CREATION OF EASEMENTS		258

xviii

Contents

7.8	EXPRESS CREATION		259
	7.8.1	Express grant	259
	7.8.2	Express reservation	260
7.9	IMPLIED CREATION		260
	7.9.1 Implied by necessity: grant and reservation		261

7.9.2Implied by common intention:

grant and reservation

262

7.9.3Easements implied under the rule in

Wheeldon v Burrows: grant only

263

7.9.4Easements implied under s 62 of the Law of

Property Act 1925: grant only

266

7.9.5An example of the creation of easements by s 62 of

the Law of Property Act 1925	268
7.9.6 A comparison between the rule in Wheeldon
v Burrows and s 62 of the Law of
Property Act 1925	269
7.10 EASEMENTS RESULTING FROM PRESCRIPTION	269

7.10.1General conditions for obtaining an

	easement by prescription	270
	7.10.2 Easements of prescription lie in fee simple only	270
	7.10.3 Use must be ‘of right’, so as to presume the grant	272
	7.10.4 Use must be in the character of an easement	274
7.11	METHODS OF ESTABLISHING AN EASEMENT BY
	PRESCRIPTION	274
	7.11.1 Prescription at common law	275
	7.11.2 Prescription at common law: lost modern grant	276
	7.11.3 The Prescription Act 1832	276
7.12 THE EXTINGUISHMENT OF EASEMENTS		278
7.13 A NOTE ON PROFITS À PRENDRE		278
	SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7	279
8	FREEHOLD COVENANTS	285
8.1 THE NATURE OF FREEHOLD COVENANTS		285
	8.1.1 Positive and negative covenants	285

xix

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