4647

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Zenger were true; therefore they were not libelous. He asserted that Zenger had been fighting for the right to speak and write the truth. In short, he had been fighting for liberty itself. The jury returned the verdict of not guilty and John Peter Zenger, editor and publisher walked out of the courtroom a free man – he won the case. This landmark decision helped establish in America the principle of freedom of the press.

In the 18th century, the intellectual and cultural development of Pennsylvania reflected, in large measure, the vigorous personalities of two men: James Logan and Benjamin Franklin. Logan was secretary of the colony who in 1745 erected a building for his collection of books and bequeathed that library to the city. Benjamin Franklin (17061790) though born in Boston, into a poor family, contributed even more to the intellectual activity of Philadelphia and the New World. He formed a debating club that became the embryo of the American Philosophical Society. He founded a public academy that later developed into the University of Pennsylvania and established the first subscription library in North America. He was one of the most educated men of his time. He was a scientist, inventor (proved lightning was electricity by flying a kite; invented Franklin stove, glass harmonica, bifocals, and essentially Philadelphia). He was a printer, a common-sense philosopher and author who is remembered for his immortal maxims like “$ 2,145.34 saved is $ 2,145.34 earned.” (Figures adjusted for inflation.), “In this world nothing can be said to be certain except death and taxes,” and a good number of other wellknown sayings from his ”Poor Richard’s Almanac” which he printed for 25 years. Franklin’s “Autobiography,” written about his life from 1731 to 1759, (the book he was born to write), displays worldly wisdom and wit, along with satire and a practical dose of advice on daily living. Here some of his sayings:

God helps them that help themselves. / Lost time is never found again. / The doors of wisdom are never shut. / Wise man learns by other’s harms; fools scarcely by their own. / Three may keep a secret if two of them are dead. / He who multiplies riches, multiplies cares. / Creditors have better memories than debtors. /In this world nothing can be said to be certain except death and taxes. /Diligence is the mother of good luck. / One today is worth two tomorrows. /A full belly makes a dull brain.

Franklin has been called “the first American”. He was a remarkable statesman and diplomat in his later years, during the colonies’ fight for independence. He helped to frame the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the Constitution of the United States (1787) and is recognized as one of the U.S.A. Founding Fathers universally beloved.

Due to liberalized political policies, land-grant requirements and religious practices, any-one in the established colony could choose to find a new home on the frontier. Of equal significance for the future were the foundation of American education and culture

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established during the colonial period. Massachusetts was the first colony to provide educational services to every child. Then other colonies followed Massachusetts’ example. Every town had a grammar school to prepare students for college. Boston booksellers were doing a thriving business. In Pennsylvania schools taught reading, writing and keeping of accounts. More advanced course in classical language, history and literature was offered at the Public School (Philadelphia) which was free to the poor, but parents who could pay were required to pay tuition. In that city, there were numerous private schools with no religious affiliation; night schools were open for adults. The daughters of prosperous Philadelphians were taught in the home by private teachers. And since many colonists came to America for religious freedom – it’s not surprising that their first colleges trained young men to be ministers. Harvard (1636), the College of William and Mary (Virginia,1693) were established. In 1701, the Collegiate School of Connecticut, later to become Yale College, was charted. By the time the colonies won their independence from Britain in 1783, six more colleges had been added: Princeton (New Jersey), Pennsylvania, Columbia (New York), Brown (Rhode Island), Rutgers (New Jersey) and Dartmouth (New Hampshire). All are active, respective universities today.

Americans call them the Ivy League.

Say true or false

1.In colonial America land was scarce and labor was plentiful.

2.Pilgrims were better-off than other colonists.

3.The three colonies developed in a similar way.

4.The Puritans who had come to America for religious freedom, did not allow any religious freedom to anybody.

5.Roger Williams was the most intolerant of the Puritans.

6.The colonies refused to trade with each other and with England.

7.New England was more jealous of its independence of Britain.

8.Quakers did not believe in God and refused military service.

9.Penn founded the land called Pennsylvania and later established Delaware.

10.Philadelphia got its name because it was a city of ethnic diversity.

Questions

1. Were the colonists’ relations with the Indians tense or peaceful? 2. How did the Indians lose the land they called Manhattan? 3. Why was New Amsterdam renamed New York? When did it happen? 4. Did the Dutch influence on the region continue to

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be strong? 5. How many colonies had been founded by the mid-1700s. 6. Which colony was the last to join the colonies? Did the British obtain this land? 7. Who held most of political power and land in the Southern colonies? 8. What made many non-British people push inland? Where did they settle? 9. What lifestyles did the colonists follow?

10. What rights did John Peter Zenger fight for? 11. Why is Ben Franklyn called “the First American”? 12. What importance did colonists place on education? 13. Were schools free? 14. Where could adults be educated? 15. What is the Ivy League? 16. When were first colleges established in your country? Which are most respected?

Chapter 4 A Nation is Established

1776 In seventeen hundred and seventy-six

The Declaration of Independence was signed-ix

The date of destiny. July 4, 1776. The day America officially broke with England. The day brave patriots signed a document stating, “We hold these truths to be selfevident, that all men are created equal…”

PRELUDE TO REVOLUTION

Through most of colonial history, inhabitants of the 13 colonies were loyal subjects of the British crown. However, long accustomed to a large measure of independence, the colonies, trained in self-government, were demanding more freedom. By the mid-1700s, the colonies had felt strong enough to control their future, to wage war against the British government that ruled them. An American identity grew out of the need to defend the interests of colonial society against England. Belief in individual freedom, selfreliance and equality characterized the New Americans.

Fast increasing in population (a six-fold increase) the colonies needed more land for settlementas far west as the Mississippi River -which might provoke a series of Indian wars. The Crown attempted to stop westward expansion. On the other hand, British government needed more money to support its growing empire. In the 1760s it levied duties on luxury items and American trade, as a whole, which added a serious burden to the colonial economy. This “interference in American affairs” sparkled the greatest organized resistance of the population.

The first major act of violence occurred in 1770, when British troops fired into an angry mob and killed five citizens in what came to be called the Boston Massacre. (Yes, it was a happier, simpler time, when five deaths were seen as a “massacre.”) Parliament had to repeal the duties except that on tea, which was a luxury item in the colonies. Yes, tea was not just a hot beverage in late eighteencentury America, it was the hot beverage.

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Most of the tea consumed in America was of foreign origin and imported illegally, dutyfree. The Crown passed the Tea Act, raising dramatically the tariff on tea and provoking the tipping point in America’s struggle for independence. It required immediate action.

And so, on a cold December night, 1773, a party of Bostonians dressed as Mohawk Indians and led by Samuel Adams boarded three British ships anchored in the harbor and dumped thousands of pounds of their tea cargo into the Atlantic. Britain condemned the Boston Tea Party as an act of vandalism. Virginia took the first step toward independence by voting to set up a committee to represent the colonies. The First Continental Congress (1774) adopted a set of resolutions, among them, the right of the colonists to “life, liberty and prosperity.” It was the first draft of a document that would formally separate the colonies from England.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

Reconciliation was impossible: England and her colony America would be forever separate. The Second Continental Congress (May, 1775) appointed Colonel George Washington as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. He began fighting the British in Massachusetts. For the next eight years, colonists fought fervently in the

Revolutionary War.

In the meantime, a war of words was being waged in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where on July 2, 1776, the Congress presented the second draft of the list of grievances against the Crown. The document, called the Declaration of Independence, was signed by John Hancock, the president of the Congress. Largely Jefferson’s work, the Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776, not only announced the birth of a new nation, but set forth the philosophy of human freedom that would become a dynamic force throughout the entire world. The familiar opening passage ran:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and Pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men… on such principles, and organizing powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.”

To fight for American independence was to fight for a government based on popular consent. Thus, to fight for American independence was to fight on behalf of one’s own natural rights to the security of life, the exercise of social and political liberty, and to the pursuit of the economic goals of each citizen’s own choosing.

The Declaration asserted that “all men are created equal.” It may seem strange that this idea was emphasized in the presence of slavery and a clear inequality among actual

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groups. However, the Founding Fathers were repeating a view which was already a fundamental ideal within the American system- “…whether inhabitant or foreigner to enjoy the same justice and law that is general”.

July 4, Independence Day

That is the day when the Declaration of Independence was approved and announced. The next year, in Philadelphia, bells rang and ships fired guns: candles and fireworks were lighted. A new nation was born. But the War of Independence dragged on until 1783, and in that year, Independence Day was made an official holiday. John Adams, a lawyer and one of the Founding Fathers, once wrote to his wife, “I believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival…It ought to be celebrated by pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells bonfires and illuminations from one end of the continent to the other…” So he, actually, started traditions with his words. Every July 4, Americans have a holiday from work. For many, Independence Day is a favorite get-together date – a family reunion. Communities have day-long picnics with favorite foods like hot dogs, hamburgers (though originated in Germany, they became very popular in America), potato salad, baked beans, and all the fixings (sauces and extras that accompany a meal). All members contribute dishes that are special to the family. One group put johnnycakes on the menu because that was their immigrant ancestors’ first American meal in 1800. The afternoon activities would not be complete without lively music, a friendly baseball game, potato-sack races, marathon gabfests and a pie-eating or watermelon-eating contests. In Flag-staff, Arizona, American Indians hold a three-day pow-wow (meeting of native Americans) with a rodeo and dancing. In Lititz, Pennsylvania, hundreds of candles that were made during the year are lighted in the park at night and floated in the water while the Queen of Candles is chosen. The ship U.S.S. John F. Kennedy comes in full sail to Boston Harbor in Massachusetts, and the Boston Pop Orchestra plays a musical concert of patriotic songs to more than 150,000 people watching fireworks burst over the water. Some cities have parades with people dressed as the original Founding Fathers who march in paraded to the music of high school bands. At dusk, people in towns and cities gather to watch the fireworks. In Philadelphia, costumed Americans reenact historical scenes, and read the Declaration of Independence for the crowd. The sight and sound of a ringing bell represents freedom to most Americans, because of the Liberty Bell that rang in Philadelphia on July 8, 1776 to mark the occasion of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence and the birth of a new

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people and politicians. People of one country will burn the flag of another with which politics they do not agree. Political leaders fly flags; dissidents rip them down. In every country of the world, the treatment of the flag displays the opinion or statement.

On June 14, 1777, the Continental Congress officially adopted the first national flag instead of British Union Jack. The thirteen stars of the flag represented the thirteen new states. One hundred years later, Congress decided to honor the flag by declaring Flag Day on June 14. It is a national commemorative day, though it is not a holiday from work. The American flag has differ-rent names. One name is “The Red, White and Blue.” This name is for the colors of the flag. Other names are “The Stars and Stripes” and “Old Glory” This Name is for the 50 stars and 13 stripes. The flag did not always have 50 stars and 13 stripes. It has changed designs more than any other flag in the world. The first flag, called the Grand Union was flown at the headquarters of the Continental Army on January 1, 1776, in Philadelphia. A legend still persists that in 1776, Betsy Ross, a seamstress, showed George Washington how to make a fivepointed star, and suggested thirteen stars in a circle and 13 stripes which would stand for 13 American colonies. There was only a family story which became part of history. Actually, she and George Washington hardly ever met. Washington did design the Grand Union, but an oftenquoted remark attributed to him might not be true: We take the stars from heaven, the red from our mother country, separate it by white stripes, thus showing that we have separated from her… Then more states joined the Union – the flag was getting too big! So in 1818, the Congress decided to have only 13 stripes on the flag, but add one star for each new state. So the number of stars changed many times. From 1912 to 1959, there were 48 stars. Then in 1959, Alaska and Hawaii joined the United States and two more stars were added.

In 1814, during the War between the British and Americans, lawyer Francis Scott Key wrote the poem which provides the words for the national anthem “The StarSpangled Banner”. Today it is sung at large public gatherings including sport events. The first official Flag Day was observed in Philadelphia in 1893 New York also proclaimed June 14 as Flag Day. Other states were slow to follow. In1949, President Henry S. Truman proclaimed the commemoration yearly, and encouraged all the country to display the Stars and Stripes outside their homes, offices and businesses. The actual flag now hangs in the Museum of American History in Washington. The current flag has thirteen red and white alternating stripes, representing the original 13 states. The red stripes proclaim liberty, the field of blue stands for loyalty. Fifty stars (each state represents one of the states of the Union) are on a blue background.

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Americans take the treatment of their flag seriously, and in the 20th century, this has become an important issue. A joint resolution adopted by Congress in 1942 established a uniform code for display of the national flag. These rules are supplemented by states’ laws. The flag should be raised briskly and lowered ceremoniously. When carried in processions with another flag, the U.S. flag is borne to the right of the other emblems carried. No other flag or pennant should be placed above the U.S. flag. Other rules deal with the observance of proper courtesy and respect for the American flag; standing respectfully with the right hand over the heart while repeating the pledge. “I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United Stated of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all.” The pledge was written by two friends from Boston, James Upham and Francis Bellamy, in1892 for the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America. Fifty years later, it was adopted by Congress as the US Pledge of Allegiance. Included in the code of ethics are such rules as: prohibiting the use of the U.S. flag for advertising purposes; it cannot cover a monument or any ceilings. It must not be folded while being displayed. No one should write on the flag.

In the late1960s, American students wore small flags sewn to the back of their jeans, symbolically insulting the U.S. government and protesting its involvement in the Vietnam War. They burned the American flag in front of the Capitol Building in Washington as a statement of protest. In the early 1990s, senators suggested an amendment to the Constitution that would make this treatment of the flag illegal. The proposition was opposed because many others felt that this change would be a violation of Americans’ constitutional rights to express their opinions freely. So, there are many rules about where to display the flag and how to fly it, but the rules don’t say anything about the size of the flag. In 1923, a store in Detroit, Michigan, made a huge U.S. flag170 feet wide and 90 feet high (about 82 meters wide and 27 meters high). Wow!

Questions for Discussion

1. When was the national flag of the USA officially adopted? 2. Who suggested the design and who made the first US flag? 3. How did it look? 4. Was it different from the present-day American Flag? 5. What do the stars and stripes stand for? 6. Who proclaimed the Flag’s yearly commemoration? 7. Is there a uniform code for display of the national flag in the USA? 8. Is there a uniform code established for display of the national flag in Russia? 9. Why was the proposition of the amendment to the Constitution on US Flag mistreatment strongly opposed? 10. Do you think respect for the national flag is a sign of patriotism? 11. Do you think the national flag of the Russian Federation properly treated? 12. Are you respectful of the flag?

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VICTORY AND INDEPENDENCE

The War of Independence dragged inconclusively for six years more. To win independence was more difficult than to declare it. The American army had hard times in the war - they lacked supplies and military training. But they were fighting to protect their newly declared independence. Women marched, cooked and fought bravely side by side with men. Some blacks formed their own military units and joined with whites to fight against the British. Many people in Europe admired the colonies’ fight for freedom. Some Europeans even came to America to help in the fighting and served bravely in the war.

In the autumn of 1781 the British surrendered. A new British government decided to pursue peace talks with the American side represented by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Jay. In April, 1783, known as the Treaty of Paris, the settlement acknowledged the independence, freedom and sovereignty of the 13 former colonies, now states.

CONSTITUTION, 1787

The war was over. Thirteen states had made up a new nation: they joined together into a confederation. The idea of national government became obvious. The representatives from all but one (Rhode Island) states assembled at a nation-wide meeting, or the Federal Convention in Philadelphia, May, 1787. Washington, regarded as the country’s outstanding citizen because of his integrity and his military leadership during the Revolution, was chosen as presiding officer. Prominent among the more active members were Benjamin Franklin, elected by Pennsylvania, James Madison, a practical young statesman and, according to a colleague, “the bestinformed man on any point in debate.” Madison today is recognized as the “Father of the Constitution.” From New

York came Alexander Hamilton, who had proposed the meeting. It was decided to set up an organization which would work out the laws of the country – Congress. Each state would send its representatives to Congress; these representatives would choose their leader and make up the national government. The plan for the government was written in a very simple language. It was decided that Congress would consist of two houses – the House of Representatives (the lower house of the Congress) and the Senate (the upper house of the Congress). There was a need for setting arguments as to the powers, term and selection of the chief executive – the president; and for solving problems involving the tenure of judges and the kind of courts to be established. The Convention recognized that the paramount need was to reconcile two different powersthe power of local control and the power of a central governmentand to define and state the functions and principles of the new national (federal) government. The

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delegates wanted their government to be effective, but at the same time not too powerful. Accordingly, the Convention set up a governmental system with separate legislative, executive and judiciary branches- each checked (policed) by the others through the elaborate system of safeguards and precautions that would prevent power from concentrating in too few hands.

Thus congressional enactments were not to become law until approved by the president. And the president was to submit the most important of his appointments and all his treaties to the Senate for confirmation. The president, in turn, could be impeached and removed by Congress. The judiciary was to hear all cases arising under federal laws and the Constitution in effect, the courts were empowered to interpret both the fundamental and the statute law. But members of the judiciary, appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, could also be impeached by Congress.

Congress worked out a system of adding new states to the original 13 states. It was decided that when the population of any new area grew to 60,000, this area could become a state. For example, in later years, five new states were formed from the Northwest Territory: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin.

To protect the Constitution from hasty alteration, Article V stipulated that amendments to the Constitution be proposed either by two-thirds of both houses of Congress or by twothirds of the states, meeting in convention. Two brief but highly significant statements were adopted: Congress shall have power… to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the … powers vested by the Constitution in the Government of the United States…(Article I). The Constitution…shall be the supreme law of the land. The Founding Fathers designed a government that, which, they believed, would promote individual liberty and public virtue. The ideas embodied in the Constitution are an essential element of the American national identity.

On September 17, 1787, the U.S Constitution was signed. Yet a crucial part of the struggle for a more perfect union was yet to be faced. To many, the document seemed full of dangers: wouldn’t the strong central government tyrannize them and oppress them with heavy taxes? Differing view on these questions brought into existence two parties - Federalists versus Anti-federalists (later called Democratic-Republicans). The conflict exercised a profound impact on American history.

The Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton- a New York lawyer appointed to head the Department of Treasuryrepresented the interests of commerce and industry and pu-blic life based on love of efficiency, order and organization. Hamilton pointed out that America must have public credit for industrial development, commercial activity and the operations of the central government. Hamilton also devised a Bank of the United