Ползунова Обучение коммуникативному чтению 2015

3.It’s expensive because it is new / uses hydrogen / is not common.

4.Hydrogen is more / less / just as dangerous as petrol.

5.Hydrogen will be used in gas / solid / liquid form.

Before you read

Discuss these questions with your partner.

•What do you need to make a fire?

•What happens to water at 1000 C?

•How do we create ice, water and steam? How can steam be turned back into water?

¾E Vocabulary

Choose the correct answer A, B or C from the list below.

1.With an air … you can take air out of a container.

2.Another word for a space, empty or not is a … .

3.A(n) … is a substance that increases the strength of hydronium if put in water.

4.A(n) … is a substance that increases the strength of hydroxide ions if put in water.

5.To make a(n) … means you had a try.

6.Somebody’s … is the way you do something.

7.When a light … , it shines softly.

8.The jar can hold a large … of liquid.

9.As the pressure increases, the danger of explosion increases in … .

10.Scientists carry out experiments and … how matter changes its form.

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¾ Reading 2

Robert Boyle

My dear Hooke,

Your letter arrived yesterday. I think you are right to write a book of memories of your scientific work. I am delighted that you have asked me to remind you of your time as my assistant.

I asked you once to make an air pump for me. Then this new idea allowed me to create a vacuum by drawing out the air from a glass jar. It was then that my experiments began. Perhaps this is something I will be remembered for, but I did not follow the scientific methods of the time. The traditional way to prove a fact was to argue it logically, and the conclusion must be the truth. Unfortunately, it was always so. My approach was to observe what actually happened.

I placed a number of different objects into the vacuum chamber. One of them was a burning candle. The flame immediately went out. Another was a piece of coal, still glowing red from the fire. Once in the chamber it stopped glowing. If the air was put back in, and the coal was still hot, it would begin to glow again. From these observations I concluded that air was necessary for combustion to take place; nothing could burn without air. On another occasion, I placed my watch into the jar. I could hear it ticking as I drew the air out. Astonishingly, as the air was taken out of the chamber, the ticking became quieter. My conclusion: sound travels through air. If there is no air, sound cannot be heard.

As the air pump is actually taking something out of the jar, I thought, then that the air must be made of something. My conclusion was that a gas is made up of very small particles. I reached this conclusion by observing the pressure in the vacuum jar. As the volume of a gas is reduced, so the pressure increases in proportion. This is universally true and as you know, is now known as Boyle’s Law.

The work I did led me to the conclusion that chemistry is the science of the composition of substances. We chemists are here to try to understand how materials are made. In my opinion, an element is the one substance which cannot be broken down any further. We can discover what elements are in compounds. When investigating these compounds, I discovered a way of testing them to find out if they are acid or alkali. I call it the litmus test.

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I realize that there is much more for us to learn. I know that we can learn about chemistry of the human body by observing how animals’ bodies behave in a vacuum. It is not work that I have attempted. It would mean I would have to kill the animals and dissect them afterwards to make my observations. I still cannot bring myself to kill an animal. This is work others will have to do.

Best wishes, Boyle

¾F Comprehension

Read the text again and decide if the following statements are true or false.

1.Boyle reached conclusions after observation.

2.He found air needed to be present to allow combustion.

3.The pressure in the jar never changed.

4.He believed chemistry was all about combustion.

5.He observed animals in a vacuum.

¾G Translation work. Explain the grammar of the sentences.

1.Robert Boyle, an Irish scientist noted for his work in chemistry and physics, is best known for the formulation of Boyle’s Law.

2.The air pump allowed Boyle to create a vacuum in a glass jar.

3.A burning candle and a piece of coal stopped burning when placed in a vacuum, leading Boyle to the conclusion that air was necessary for combustion to take place.

4.He also came to the conclusion that sound travels through air and cannot be heard in vacuum.

5.Observing the change of pressure in a vacuum, Boyle suggested that even gas was made up of very small particles.

6.As the volume of gas is reduced, its pressure increases in propor-

tion.

7.While investigating some compounds, Boyle discovered a way of testing them to find out if they were acid or alkali.

8.It was then that my experiments began.

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9. When investigating these compounds, I discovered a way of testing them to find out if they are acid or alkali.

Before you listen

Discuss these questions with your partner.

•How do you know a medicine is safe?

•How do people test medicines?

¾H Listening CD 1 (track 29)

Listen to the extract from a talk by a scientist about the safety testing of medicines. Then listen again and fill in the notes.

One tenth of animals used in UK medical research, are used to test the (1) … of medicines.

The authorities may not carry out a safety study if identical results are (2) … .

The liver or the (3) … could be badly affected by new medicines. Safety testing is used for new chemicals and (4) … used in food. Therefore, tests are for healthy people and people receiving (5) …

care.

¾I Speaking

Discuss these questions with your partner.

•What important discoveries have chemists made? Think about medicine, vaccines and industry.

•What practical uses have these discoveries had?

Task

Prepare a short presentation on Robert Boyle’s achievements. Talk about:

•his experiments on: burning, sound

•his conclusions on: gases, pressure

•his approach to science

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First complete these notes.

Use them in your presentation.

Experiments to look at burning in a vacuum: sound reduced. Therefore, … .

Observation on vacuum: … . Boyle’s law

Approach to science: … from what happened.

Believe what he saw, not what he wants to believe.

Remember to:

introduce each point

give clear examples

let the audience know when you have finished

J Writing

Write an article for a student magazine with the title: “Interesting facts about the atom”. Use functional phrases of opinion giving, generalizing, ordering and summarizing: I think/suppose, I know for sure, in my opinion, as a rule, for the most part, generally speaking, as a matter of course, first of all, to begin with, another thing is, furthermore, moving on to, finally, in conclusion, to sum up.

Read text I again and make notes under these headings:

History of discovery

…

…

…

Parts of the atom

…

…

…

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What the parts do

…

…

…

How many atoms

…

…

…

Use the headings in your article. Write four paragraphs (200– 250 words). Use some of these words and phrases:

at first

smallest particle(s)

a number of

electrically charged

bond

molecule

Remember to make your article as interesting as possible.

Unit III

Before you read

Discuss these questions with your partner.

•Can you say what chemical composition of water is?

•Do you know what part oxygen plays in breathing and what part it plays in combustion?

A Vocabulary

Complete the definitions below with the words from the table.

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1.To … means to show.

2.A … is the condition of something at a particular time.

3.Somebody … is well regarded in their field.

4.A … is an idea.

5.A … is a process in which a chemical change happens.

6.To be … is to be set free.

7.A … matter is a matter that can burn.

8.To … means to help somebody or something be successful.

9.To … something back means to discover how it developed.

10.Something that is … is very important, successful or powerful.

¾Reading 1

The Law of Conservation of Mass

The Law of Conservation of Mass is one of the most important concepts in chemistry. The law states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. This means that in any chemical reaction, the mass of the reacting substances at the start of the reaction will be the same as the mass of the products at the end of the reaction. Matter can change its form in a reaction, for example from a liquid state to a gas, but the mass will remain the same.

The Law of Conservation of Mass is also known as the LomonosovLavoisier Law because both of these scientists contributed to its development. Lomonosov first described the law in a letter to a friend and then published his ideas in a dissertation dated 1760. Lavoisier reached the same conclusions much later, in 1789, and was the first to formulate the law in clear scientific terms. For this reason the law takes its name from both these brilliant men.

The idea of conservation of mass, however, can be traced back as far as ancient Greece. In the 5th century BC, Anaxagoras, a philosopher and scientist, said that nothing comes into existence or is destroyed and that everything is a mixture of pre-existing things. Over the course of history, many other distinguished scientists also expressed their views on the conservation of mass.

The dominant theory in the 18th century was the phlogiston theory. According to this theory, all flammable materials (that is, materials that can burn) contain a substance called phlogiston, which is released dur-

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ing the burning process. That means that when flammable materials burn, the new substance, without phlogiston, should weigh less than the original substance. But this theory was wrong. Experiments showed that some metals actually increased in weight when they burnt. Lomonosov’s experiment in 1756 demonstrated that the increase in weight was due to air. Many years later, Lavoisier proved that oxygen was required for combustion (burning); without it, the mass of burnt matter remained the same.

The Law of Conservation of mass was not discovered in the usual scientific way. Lavoisier did not reach his conclusions by generalizing from a large number of similar cases because, at that time, there was not enough scientific information for him to do so. Instead, Lavoisier assumed that his theory was true and then he set about proving it. His belief was justified because he did indeed prove the Law of Conservation of Mass.

The fact that the total amount of matter in chemical reactions is always conserved and never disappears even though the matter may be in an altered form, is not only important for science, but also for other fields of human knowledge, particularly philosophy. It has led us to think about the nature of existence, and where we truly come from.

¾ B Comprehension

Read the text. Match the questions below about the Law of Conversation of Mass with the paragraphs. There is one question which you do not need to use.

Paragraph 1. …

Paragraph 2. …

Paragraph 3. …

Paragraph 4. …

Paragraph 5. …

Paragraph 6. …

A.How was it discovered?

B.Which theory did it replace?

C.Can we create or destroy matter?

D.What is the name of the law?

E.What has it made us consider?

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F.What is mass?

G.How long ago had other philosophers thought about it?

¾C Translation work. Explain the grammar of the sentences

1.According to the Law of Conservation of Mass, the mass of the reacting substances at the start of the reaction will be the same as the mass of the products at the end of the reaction.

2.Lomonosov first described the Law of Conservation of Mass and published his ideas later, in 1760.

3.Lavoisier formulated his conclusions into a scientific theory in

1789.

4.The idea of conservation of mass itself was not actually new. In the 5th century BC, the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras said that nothing comes into existence or is destroyed and that everything is a mixture of pre-existing things.

5.Experiments showed that some metals increased in weight when they burned.

6.Lavoisier proved that oxygen was required for combustion to take

place.

7.The fact that matter in a chemical reaction can change its form, but always conserves its mass, was very important not only to science but to philosophy, too.

Before you listen

Discuss these questions with your partner.

•How important is to study the past?

•Do you know of any philosopher-scientists from the past?

¾D Listening CD 1 (track 31)

Listen to a class discussion about the past. Then choose the statements that are true.

1.In ancient times there were no strict separations between philosophy and science.

2.Thales rightly believed water was the basis of all composition in nature.

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3.Thales’ importance lies in his use of science rather than mythology.

4.Empedocles’ theory of the four elements included earth and water.

5.Anaxagoras agreed with Empedocles’ theory.

6.Anaxagoras also claimed things kept the same.

¾E Vocabulary

Choose the correct answer.

1.The word propose means A. observe

B. accept C. suggest

2.The word absorb means A. take in

B. remove C. lose

3.The word compose means A. dry

B. make C. boil

4.The word reflect means A. show

B. prevent C. help

5.The word mechanism means A. workings

B. parts

C. machinery

6.The word respiration means A. breathing in

B. breathing out

C. breathing in and out

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