Гвоздева Цомпутер сциенце 2011

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ ЯДЕРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ «МИФИ»

Е.А. Гвоздева

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Учебно-методическое пособие для аспирантов по специальности «Вычислительная техника»

Рекомендовано к изданию УМО «Ядерные физика и технологии»

Москва 2011

УДК 811.111(075) ББК 81.2я7 Г 25

Гвоздева Е.А. Computer science. Учебно-методическое пособие для аспирантов по специальности «Вычислительная техника». М.: НИЯУ МИФИ, 2011. – 52 с.

Учебное пособие предназначено для подготовки аспирантов, специализирующихся в области вычислительной техники.

Цель данного учебного пособия – обучение свободному чтению специальной литературы на английском языке без использования метода перевода.

Структура учебного пособия предполагает работу в парах и мини-группах, что дает возможность совершенствования разговорной речи в рамках предлагаемого материала.

Поставленные цели соответствуют современной концепции образовательного процесса, смещающей акцент с усвоения готового знания, предлагаемого преподавателем, на самостоятельную, познавательную деятельность студента.

Подготовлено в рамках Программы создания и развития НИЯУ МИФИ.

Оригинал-макет изготовлен С.В. Тялиной

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ООО «Полиграфический комплекс «Курчатовский». 144000, Московская область, г. Электросталь, ул. Красная, д. 42.

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INTRODUCTION

HOW EVERYTHING STARTED

Study the passage.

When the work is first done it is completely impractical. Nuclear physics before the Second World War was like studying Greek poetry. There were only a handful of people who studied nuclear physics and it had no practical consequences. Computer technology was a spin off a philosophical controversy about the foundations of mathematics: whether mathematics has a firm foundation and how to make it firm.

One of the suggestions, about a hundred years ago, was made by a famous mathematician David Hilbert. And Hilbert said that we should formalize mathematics, make an artificial language for mathematical reasoning. That project failed. But the notion of total formalization, of a completely artificial language, where it is mechanical to see what something means, is the most tremendous technological success of the past century: the computer! These artificial languages are everywhere now. But they are not artificial languages for mathematical reasoning which Hilbert wanted. They are languages for calculating, for algorithms, for programming.

Chitin, American mathematician

Vocabulary Notes

1.a consequence – an implication – a result

2.a spin off – something useful that happens unexpectedly as a result of some other activities – a by-product

3.a controversy – a dispute

4.a suggestion – a proposal – an idea that is put forward

5.to reason – the ability to think in order to make an argument

6.to fail – not to be accepted

7.a notion – a concept

8.tremendous – great – important – impressive

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PART I

DATA PROCESSING

UNIT 1

MAN VS. MAN

PRE-READING TASK Study some grammar points.

I. We use S seems to V – Russian – вроде бы; по-видимому; соз-

дается впечатление

We use both variants.

1.It seemed that there was no limit to what science could achieve.

2.There seemed to be no limit to what science could achieve.

1.It seems that touch-sensitive “smart” paper is an interesting new I/O technology that can be used as an inexpensive remote control device.

2.Touch sensitive smart paper seems to be an interesting I/O technology that can be used as an inexpensive remote control device.

II. N + to Vo (active); N + to be V3 (passive)

An infinitive (to V) after a noun characterizes it and expresses an action which must be done or could be done in the future.

Study the sentences.

1.Early computer pioneers make their programs play like people do on the basis of knowledge-based searches (or heuristics) to choose the best moves.

2.A new generation of researchers relied on increasingly fast hardware to conduct searches of game trees.

3.IBM got interested in the challenge to build a system to defeat a human player.

III. We use to V to talk about the purpose of doing something (why someone does something.

Study the sentences.

1.In 1989, the members of the Deep Blue team were employed by IBM to develop a computer to defeat World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov.

2.To learn to think, a machine needs to have a chance of finding things out for himself.

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to develop – developed – developed – developing

\ \

participles

Ving (ющий); Ved (нный)

The participle has two functions.

a. The participle following a noun N + Ving or N + Ved gives information about it.

The participle can be put together with other words to make an adjectival participle clause (определительное придаточное предложение –

который).

Study the sentences.

1.A new generation of researchers conducted searches of game trees allowing the evaluation of millions of chess positions.

2.The Java language is an interpretive language based on objectoriented technology.

3.The Pentium microprocessor developed by Intel Corp. became the workhorse of PCs.

4.Deep Blue ‘magic’ relied on human abilities hidden within a box. b. When two things happen at the same time, you can use Ving

for one of the verbs.

These structures are used mainly in written English.

Study the sentences.

1.The team spent seven years refining the machine’s software and adding more custom processors.

2.Kasparov also played along, proclaiming “playing such a match is like defending humanity.”

V. When we imagine a situation we use would (could, might) + Vo

would – (Russian) бы

could, might – (Russian) мог бы

Study the sentence.

1. If a computer could play chess, then perhaps other problems that require human intelligence might also be solved.

VI. Независимый причастный оборот

1. ………………… , S + Ving (Ved) = а, и, причём 2. ........................... , with S + Ving (Ved) = при этом

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Study the sentences.

1.The match was really about man vs. man, that is, Kasparov vs. Deep Blue’s programmers, a view shared by most of them as well.

2.Windows NT come in both server and client versions, the latter accounting for 80% of total units.

3.In numbers of units, the export of LAN and Web servers will be largest, with millions of products sold each year.

Give Russian correspondence:

then (in this case), although (though), no + N, to make (to force somebody to do something), a challenge (a task to be solved), in spite of (despite), as (in the process), like, vs. (against), at all, in fact (really), that is (that is to say), as well (too), within (inside)

Terminology

1.heuristics – a knowledge-based search

2.a game tree – древовидная схема, дерево игры

3.a custom processor – процессор, запрограммированный по техническим условиям заказчика

“IN CERTAIN KINDS OF POSITIONS THE COMPUTER SEES

SO DEEPLY THAT IT PLAYS LIKE GOD”

(Kasparov)

Study the passage.

The emergence of an electronic computer in the late 1940s led to much speculation about “thinking machines.” There seemed to be no limit to what science could achieve, including building a machine that could think. If a computer could play chess, then perhaps other problems that require human intelligence might also be solved. For example, in a 1949 paper, Claude Shannon, a researcher at MIT, said of programming a computer to play chess that, “Although of no practical importance, the question is of theoretical interest, and it is hoped that this problem will be helpful in attacking other problems of greater significance.”

Work on computer chess continued mainly in universities. By the 1970s, a community of researchers emerged and began to share new

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techniques and programs. At the same time, computers were doubling in speed about every two years. Сomputer pioneers tried to make their programs play like people do on the basis of knowledge-based searches (or heuristics) to choose the best moves. A new generation of researchers included heuristics, but also conducted searches of game trees allowing the evaluation of millions of chess positions – something no human can do.

IBM got interested in the challenge. In 1989, the members of the Deep Blue team graduated and were employed by IBM to develop a computer to defeat World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov. The first match took place at the New-York Academy of Science in 1989. Kasparov’s win was swift but the team learned many valuable lessons and spent seven years refining the machine’s software and adding more custom processors.

A six-game rematch took place in Manhattan in 1997. Kasparov won the first game but missed an opportunity in the second game and lost. In the last game, he made a simple mistake and lost.

In spite of his loss, it is remarkable that a human could hold his own against a machine that could evaluate 200 million positions per second. But some conclusions were made. Kasparov’s typical psychological strategy of intimidation had no effect on Deep blue. The machine never got tired or frustrated, factors which began to affect Kasparov’s play as the match progressed.

The popular media portrayed the match as a battle between “man and machine.” Kasparov also played along, proclaiming “playing such a match is like defending humanity.” In fact, it was not a battle of man vs. machine at all. As philosopher John Searle suggests, the match was really about man vs. man, that is, Kasparov vs. Deep Blue’s programmers, a view shared by most of them as well. Deep Blue ‘magic’ relied on human abilities hidden within a box.

Vocabulary Notes

1.emergence – appearance

2.a speculation – a discussion

3.a significance – an importance

4.to share – if people share a task they do it together

5.to rely on – to be based on

6.a search – an attempt to find

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7.an evaluation – a decision about the significance of something

8.to defeat – if you defeat someone, you win a victory over him

9.swift – quick – rapid

10.remarkable – surprising – startling

11.to intimidate – to frighten

12.to proclaim − to say

POST-READING TASK

(To be done at home in writing)

I. Write a summary by answering the questions.

1.Why did the researchers start developing a computer chess program although they were sure that it was of no practical importance?

2.What searches did a new generation of researchers conduct?

3.What is heuristics?

4.What does a game tree allow to do?

5.When and where did the first game between a human and a computer take place?

6.Who did the computer play with?

7.Who won?

8.What is Kasparov’s typical psychological strategy?

9.What are the advantages of a machine over man?

10.Was it a man vs. machine game or a man vs. man one?

II. Make up simple sentences with the expressions. Follow the

CLASS EXERCISES

Exercise 1 (do it yourself) Translate the sentences.

1. Cкорость компьютеров удваивалась каждые два года.

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2.Новое поколение исследователей проводило поиск древовидной схемы игры.

3.Древовидная схема позволяла оценить миллионы шахматных позиций.

4.Ни один человек не может сделать этого.

5.Создание компьютерной программы для игры в шахматы заинтересовало IBM.

Exercise 2 (do it yourself)

Translate the sentences using: to be of importance, to be of interest, to be of significance. Follow the passage.

1.Создание компьютерной программы для игры в шахматы не имеет никакого практического значения.

2.Эта проблема представляет чисто теоретический интерес, но она поможет решить более важные задачи.

UNIT 2

WHAT’S NEXT?

PRE-READING TASK Study some grammar points.

I. We use to V to talk about the purpose of doing something (why someone does something.

Study the sentences.

1.Grandmasters and World Champions use computer chess programs to train for play, both against machines and other humans.

2.Logic is not enough to correctly answer this question.

II. Gerund

Preposition (предлог) + N + Ving (active) or N + being V3 (passive) = Russian = то, что; gerunds are used only in written English.

Study the sentence.

In spite of the millions of positions per second being evaluated, computers and humans are matched.

III. We use whether when talking about a doubt between two alternatives = Russian = V + ли

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