Гвоздева Тхе Цосмос 2011

CLASS EXERCISES

Exercise 1 (do it yourself)

Complete the sentences choosing one of the alternatives:

1.This debate … … … .. throughout recorded history.

2.The universe … … in the fairly recent past.

3.Bishop Ussher … a date of 4004 BC for the creation of the universe.

4.The human race … …. in culture and technology.

5.According to this argument we … … … … all that long.

6.Otherwise, we … … … more than we have.

7.Aristotle … … the idea that the universe had a beginning.

8.Aristotle believed that the universe … … and … … for ever.

9.Both schools of thought held that the universe … essentially … with time.

10.In the nineteenth century, however, evidence … .. … that the earth and the rest of the universe were in fact changing with time.

11.Geologists realized that the formation of the rocks and the fossils in them … … … hundreds or thousands of millions of years.

12.Further evidence … … by the so-called second law of thermodynamics.

13.The total amount of disorder … … by a quantity called entropy.

14.This suggests that the universe … … … … … only for a finite

time.

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to protect (the infinitive) − protected (the past simple) − protected

or N + Ving N + Ved clause − определительное придаточное предложение (Russian − который).

Study the sentences.

1.You can think of ordinary, real time as a horizontal line, going from left to right.

2.There might also be quite a number of very much smaller black holes scattered around the universe, formed not by the collapse of stars but by the collapse of highly compressed regions in the hot, dense medium that has existed shortly after the big bang, in which the universe originated.

3.One of the problems facing physicists is to make general relativity compatible with quantum mechanics.

4.The earth is trying to move on a straight line through space-time, but the curvature of space-time produced by the mass of the sun causes it to go in a circle around the sun.

II. We use modal verbs + have V3 to say that it was possible or highly probable in the past.

May, might, can, could = possible (Russian − возможно было). Must = highly probable (Russian − вероятно было, наверняка

было)

Study the sentences.

1.The observations indicate that the early universe must have been non-turbulent.

2.Heavy elements could have been formed by nuclear synthesis of the early generation of nearby stars.

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3. The early universe must have been very smooth and non-turbulent.

Give Russian correspondence:

to realize (to understand), fairly (rather), like something (similar to something), eventually (finally), about (approximately), another (one more), N + that − который

EARTH IS A UNIQUE PLANET

Study the passage.

Earth is a unique planet which has everything for the development of life and human evolution: the unique composition of air, the unique properties of water, the unique mineral composition of soils which feed all the living things, the unique position relative to the sun, and even the position of the solar system in the galaxy (Milky Way) is unique. The solar system is about 60000 light years from the centre of the galaxy, the distance which protects life on the earth from rigid radiation of the galactic centre.

What do we know about our position in the Universe? In ancient times people believed that the earth was at the centre of the universe. Now we realize that we are among the many inhabiting a minor planet going around a very average star in the outer suburbs of a fairly typical spiral galaxy that is only one of a hundred billion galaxies we can see. We know now that we cannot claim any special position in the universe.

The sun is certainly a prerequisite of our existence, as is the earlier generation of nearby stars in which heavy elements could have been formed by nuclear synthesis. The Sun is the size it is because it is so hot. It is burning hydrogen into helium, like a controlled H-bomb.

The heat released in this process generates a pressure that enables the sun to resist the attraction of its own gravity, which is trying to make it smaller. Eventually, however, the sun will run out of nuclear fuel.

The earth is trying to move in a straight line through space-time, but the curvature of space-time produced by the mass of the sun causes it to go in a circle around the sun. Similarly, light tries to travel in a straight line, but the curvature of space-time near the sun bends the light from distant stars when they pass near the sun. Normally, one is not able to see the stars in the sky that are in almost the same direction as the sun.

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During an eclipse, however, when most of the sun’s light is blocked off by the moon, one can observe the light from those stars.

FYI

1.a spiral galaxy – an enormous pancake-shaped collection of stars and gas

2.an eclipse of the sun is an occasion when the moon comes between the earth and the sun so that for a short time you cannot see part or all of the sun.

Vocabulary Notes

1.to inhabit – if a place is inhabited, people live there

2.average – ordinary

3.a prerequisite – a precondition – something that must exist before another thing is possible.

4.a generation of stars – a group of stars of the same period of time

5.outer – (ant.) inner

6.suburbs – periphery

7.to claim – to pretend to something

8.to enable – to allow

9.to cause – to make somebody do something – to force somebody to do something

POST-READING TASK (to be done in writing)

I. Summarize the passage using the below outline.

1.Earth

2.The Sun

3.Space-time

4.A solar eclipse

II. Put in the prepositions.

1.People believed that the earth was …. the centre of the universe.

2.Earth is a minor planet going … a very average star.

3.The sun is certainly a prerequisite …… our existence.

4.Heavy elements could have been formed in nearby stars ….. nuclear synthesis.

5.The sun is burning hydrogen ….. helium.

6.Eventually the sun will run out … nuclear fuel.

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7.The earth is trying to move … a straight line ….. space-time.

8.…. the eclipse most of the sun’s light is blocked off … the moon.

9.….the eclipse one can observe the light …. those stars.

III. Give words close in meaning.

CLASS EXERCISES

Exercise 1 (first in pairs, then in groups)

Answer the questions. Follow the passage.

1.What makes Earth a unique planet for the development of life and human evolution?

2.What kind of planet is Earth??

3.What does the sun provide us with?

4.Why is the earlier generation of nearby stars considered to be a prerequisite of our existence?

5.What makes the sun comparable with a controlled H-bomb?

6.Why is the sun the size it is?

7.What man-made device can you compare the sun with?

8.What happens during a solar eclipse?

Exercise 2 (do it yourself)

Study grammar point II and translate the phrases, in which ‘one’ is the subject. Follow the passage.

Exercise 3 (do it yourself)

Formulate questions.

1.The sun will eventually run out of its fuel. (Why?)

2.The earth goes in a circle around the sun. (Why?)

3.The light from distant stars is bent if it passes near the sun. (Why?)

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4.One is unable to see stars in the sky that are in almost the same direction as the sun. (Why?)

5.But occasionally one can observe the light from those stars. (When?) (Why?)

Exercise 4 (in pairs)

Ask the questions formulated in ex. 3 and give answers.

Exercise 5 (do it yourself)

Reconstruct the passage by formulating simple sentences with the key words.

1.The earth … the centre of the universe.

2.The earth … a minor planet … an average star.

3.The sun … a prerequisite …….

4.The sun … hydrogen into helium.

5.The heat released in this process … a pressure.

6.Eventually the sun ….. nuclear fuel/

7.The curvature of space-time produced by the mass of the sun …. the earth … in a circle around the sun.

8.The curvature … the light from distant stars.

9.Normally, ………………………… that are in almost the same direction as the sun.

10.During an eclipse ………. the light from those stars.

UNIT 5

ON EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF THE UNIVERSE

“Is the universe going to expand into eternity or will everything collapse in one Big Crunch in which physical laws become meaningless? To follow such a fine mind as it exposes such great problems is an exciting experience.”

The Times

(review to Hawking’s book ‘The Universe in a Nutshell’)

PRE-READING TASK Study some grammar points.

I. We use to + V to talk about the purpose of doing something (why someone does something). We also use in order to + V

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Study the sentences.

1.Hawking proposes that the universe is neither created nor destroyed: it just is. In order to formulate this idea, Hawking introduces the concept of imaginary time.

2.In order to discuss the beginning of the universe, we need a theory that combines general relativity with quantum mechanics.

II. There are personal and impersonal sentences. In impersonal sentences we can use One as the subject = You. Don’t translate One in

this case.

Study the sentence.

The predictions of perturbation theory are in reasonable qualitative agreement with observation, but one cannot yet really claim that the theory has been experimentally verified.

III. S + expect + O (object) + to V (to be Ving) ….. We use both variants.

1.One can expect that the gravitational attraction between different galaxies is slowing down the rate of expansion.

2.One can expect the gravitational attraction between different ga- laxies to be slowing down the rate of expansion.

1.On average, one would expect that the faintest sources are the most distance ones.

2.On average, one would expect the faintest sources to be the most distant ones.

1.I don’t expect that I will be around to be proved wrong.

2.I don’t expect to be around to be proved wrong.

IV would shows that the action will most probably occur as a result of some previous action.

Study the sentence. Would here is the less definite form of will.

1.The universe would collapse to a big crunch.

2.The big crunch would be what is called a singularity.

3.In a singularity the laws of physics would break down.

V. If we want to emphasize a verb we use do + V or does + V

Study the sentences.

1.I do have certain advantages over other prophets.

2.What is the proportion of those who buy the books by Hawking and those who actually do read them?

3.Although we do not yet have the proper quantum theory of gravity, we do have an idea of some of the features it should have.

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Give Russian correspondence:

the farther ……., the faster …., actually (really), to be due to (to be caused by), beyond (outside), in terms of (by), eventually (finally, ultimately), to make somebody do something (to force somebody to do something), rather like (almost like), so (thus, therefore, hence), at least (as a minimum), certain (particular)

Vocabulary Notes

1 an eternity − time without an end

2 meaningless − senseless

3 smooth − without singularities

THE CRUCIAL QUESTION FOR THE FUTURE

OF THE UNIVERSE

Study the passage. Translate the sentence marked with asterisks in writing.

We observe that other galaxies are moving away from us and the farther they are from us, the faster they are moving away. This means that the universe is expanding: the distances between different galaxies are increasing with time. Evidence that this expansion is smooth and not chaotic is given by background microwave radiation that we observe coming from outer space. You can actually observe this radiation yourself by tuning your television to an empty channel. A small percentage of the flecks on the screen are due to microwaves from beyond the solar system.

Because the expansion of the universe is so uniform, one can describe it in terms of a single number, the distance between two galaxies. *It is increasing at the present time, but one can expect the gravitational attraction between different galaxies to be slowing down the rate of expansion.* If the density of the universe is greater than certain critical value, gravitational attraction will eventually stop the expansion and make the universe start to contract again. The universe would collapse to a big crunch. This would be rather like the big bang that began the universe. The big crunch would be what is called a singularity, a star of infinite density at which the laws of physics would break down.

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If the average density of the universe is less than the critical value, it will not collapse but will continue to expand forever. So the crucial question for the future of the universe is: What is the average density? If it is less than the critical value, the universe will expand forever. But if it is greater, the universe will collapse and time itself will come to an end at the big crunch.

I do, however, have certain advantages over other prophets. Even if the universe is going to collapse, I can confidently predict that it will not stop expanding for at least ten billion years. I don’t expect to be around to be proved wrong.

Stephen Hawking

Vocabulary Notes

1.crucial – extremely important − essential

2.an eternity − time without an end

3.meaningless − senseless

4.smooth − without singularities

5.to expect – if you expect something you believe that it is going to happen.

6.a rate – speed – velocity – we use rate when we speak about a process.

7.a crunch is a breaking sound

8.average − something that is average varies, but is always approximately the same.

9.crucial – extremely important - essential

10.an advantage − something that puts you in a better position than other people

11.a prophet – a person who is believed to be chosen by God to say things that God himself wants to say to people.

12.confidently – with 100% assurance – certainly − positively

13.to be around − to be present

POST - READING TASK (to be done in writing)

I. Formulate simple logical sentences with the below verbs. Follow the passage.

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to move away, to expand, to increase, to describe, to expect, to slow down, to contract, to collapse, to break down, to come to an end, to predict

Model: One can describe the expansion of the universe in terms of a single number.

II. Formulate the answer to the question: What does the ultimate fate of the universe depend on and why?

III. Put in the prepositions.

1.Other galaxies are moving away … us.

2.The distances … different galaxies are increasing …time.

3.You can actually observe this radiation yourself by tuning your television … an empty

4.A small percentage … the flecks … the screen are due … microwaves … … the solar system.

5.One can describe the expansion of the universe … a single number, the distance … two galaxies.

6.It is increasing … the present time.

7.The universe would collapse … a big crunch.

8.A singularity is a star … infinite density … which the laws … physics would break down.

9.Time itself will come … an end … a big crunch.

10.I have certain advantages … other prophets.

11.I can predict that the universe will not stop expanding … at least ten billion years.

IV. Complete the sentences by making the proper choice of the adjectives: gravitational, single, average, infinite crucial, uniform, critical

1.One can describe the expansion of the universe in terms of a ……. number.

2.The expansion of the universe is …..

3.The value is …….

4.A singularity is a star of ……… density.

5.The question is ……

6.What is the …… density?

7…. attraction will eventually stop the expansion.

8.If the …. density of the universe is less than the ….. value, it will continue to expand for ever.

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