Encyclopedia of Sociology Vol

sexual behavior patterns, 2539–2540, 2545–2547, 2554–2555, 2556, 2561

sexual coercion studies, 2557

sexual risk-taking, 2559

singlehood demographics and, 125

transvestism and transsexuality, 2554, 2572–2573

See also Femininity/masculinity

Sexual Politics (Millet), 2587

Sexual revolution, 484, 487, 2585

Sexual selection (SS) corollary, 2885

Sexual strategies theory, 2537

Sexual violence and exploitation, 1064, 2557, 2559, 2576–2584

African-American slave experience, 54, 62, 1407–1408

aggression-prone attitudes and, 72, 2591

censorship and, 275

consent and coercion, 2556–2559

and criminalization of deviance, 523

feminist theory on, 991

incest and, 991, 2557, 2559, 2594

males as victims, 2578

prostitution and, 2560–2561

sex industry and tourism, 2560–2561

treatment and prevention, 2583

women as victims, 2587–2589

See also Childhood sexual abuse; Incest; Rape; Sexual harassment

Sexuality. See Sexual behavior patterns; Sexual orientation

Sexually explicit content. See Pornography

Sexually transmitted diseases,

2585–2595

effect on courtship, 487, 489

and fertility determinants, 1010

as lifestyle risk, 1641–1642, 2559

See also AIDS/HIV

Shagari, Shehu, 2134

Shakespeare, William, 2091

Shalin, Dimitri, 2217

Shame, 2521, 2529, 2773

Shame of the Cities, The (Steffens),

2124, 2126

Shaming, as social control, 519, 520 Shanahan, Suzanne, 2662

Shanas, Ethel, 1389

Shango, 65

Shannon, Thomas, 1706

Shapin, Steven, 2456

Shapiro, Robert Y., 2276

Shapiro, Susan, 2962, 3251, 3252

Sharecroppers, 2492

Shared good. See Communitarianism Shared-values school, 2337

Sharia. See Islamic law

Sharif, Nawaz, 2132

Sharot, Stephen, 2968–2969

Shaver, P. R., 2068, 3209

Shavitt, S., 2098

Shaw, Clifford, 324, 665, 1495, 1633

Shaw, M., 3209

Sheatsley, Paul, 2243

Sheldon, Eleanor Bernert, 2682 Sheldon, William, 1717–1718 Shell International Petroleum

Company, 1041–1042 Sheltered housing, 1655–1656 Sherif, Muzafer, 2415

conformity experiment, 401, 402, 404, 2611, 2616

Shi’a Islam, 3286

Shils, Edward A., 225, 836, 2632,

2954, 3213, 3214

Shilts, Randy, 2585

Shimmei, Masamichi, 1478

Shine, M., 1628

Shinn, Larry D., 3279

Shiva, Vandana, 1230

Shively, W. Phillips, 1595

Shlapentokh, V., 2980

Shneidman, Edwin S., 3077

Shoemaker, Floyd, 678

Shogunate, 253

Short, James, 1488, 3079, 3080

Short-Form 36 Health Survey, 2306

Shostak, Arthur B., 107–108

Shott, Susan, 782–783 Shubkin, Vladimir, 2980 Shudras (Hindu servants), 250

Shupe, Anson, 2372, 2379

Shweder, Richard, 1900, 1902

Siblings

in blended families, 2391–2392

in coalitions, 332

incest, 1273, 1275

unity vs. marital unity, 1509

See also Family size

Sicily, 2128

Sick role (Parsons concept), 1813, 1815

Siddhartha Buddha, 3284–3285

Sidney, Stephen, 57

Siegel, Fred, 316

Siegel, Sidney, 1957

Siegfried, André, 3232

Sierra Club, 790, 802, 803

Sighele, Scipio, 1464, 1465

Sigler, Jay A., 1945

Sign test (nonparametric), 1961

Signs and symbols, postmodern theory on, 2205–2206

Sikes, Melvinn, 57

Sikhism and Sikhs, 2366, 2486,

3287–3288

Silent Spring (Carson), 789, 803

Silpa-Archa, Banharn, 2131

Silver, A. K., 288

Silverman, David, 247

Silverman, F. N., 288

SIME-DIME study, 2213

Simiand, François, 734, 1024,

1891, 2917

Similarity hypothesis, 2650

Simmel, Georg, 178, 581, 733, 820, 852, 1028, 1074, 1116, 1117, 1305, 1313, 1423, 2693

‘‘blaseization’’ concept, 2528

as Blau social exchange theory influence, 2671, 2672

as Chicago School influence, 1772

coalitions perspective, 329, 2611

conflict theory, 415

frames concept of, 1932

on individual identity and social belonging relationship, 2633–2634

as Japanese sociology early influence, 1477, 1478

on money’s significance, 1888, 1889

music theory, 1924

on role differentiation, 696, 698

on sentiments, 2520

and social inequality concept, 2690

as sociology of knowledge basis, 2954, 2955

‘‘stranger’’ concept, 2635

on territorial belonging, 3129

on unstability of triads, 465

Simon, Herbert, 3035

Simon, Theodore, 2330

Simple random sampling (SRS), 2446–2447

Simpson, Ada Harper, 150–151, 156

Simpson, Elizabeth L., 1900

Simpson, Richard, 150–151, 156

Simpura, Jussi, 2451

Simulation and Games (journal), 407

Simulation models

computer-assisted, 410, 3039

forecasting and, 2678–2679

standardization and, 2996

Simultaneous equation model, 261–264, 2251, 3035

Sinclair, Upton, 245

SINET: Social Indicators Network News

(quarterly), 2685

Singapore, 2130, 2974

authoritarian communitarianism, 356

dependency theory, 642

fertility transition, 1008, 2976

labor movement, 1532

Singer, Burton, 1684, 1689, 1691

Singer, Milton, 564

Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961), 713

Single European Act (1987),

1550, 2151

Single Market (EU; 1993), 1934

Single mothers. See Single-parent households; Unwed childbearing

Singlehood, 107–108

childbearing and, 125, 128, 484, 488, 634, 1258–1264, 1506, 1626, 1744, 2033

demographics, 124–125

divorce and, 112

gender and, 107–108, 108, 124, 125

homosexuality and, 111, 124

marriage squeeze factor and, 1775–1776

never-married adults, 107–108, 124–125, 487–488, 1738

race and, 107–108

sexual behavior patterns, 2553–2555, 2556

suicide rate, 3078

voluntary/involuntary, 107–108

Single-indicator models, 1910– 1912, 1922

Single-item scale

for attitude, 185–186

for quality of life, 2303, 2307

Single-member representational districts, 2154, 2157, 2164

Single-parent households, 142, 359, 487, 488, 1625, 2033

African-American, 122

as choice, 1506, 1626

from divorce, 112, 128, 708, 1747, 1749, 2033

effects on children of, 705, 706, 707–708, 3062

nonmarital births, 125

from out-of-wedlock births, 634, 708, 2033

poverty level and, 2215

poverty rate of, 127, 128, 3062

rise in rate, 127

See also Unwed childbearing

Sinha, J. B. P., 1566

Sirowy, Larry, 423

Situational analysis. See Life histories and narratives

Siu, Paul, 176, 178

Six-Day War (1967), 3139

Sixteenth Street Baptist Church (Birmingham, Ala.) bombing, 2495

Siyassat Nameh (Nezam Mulk

Tussi), 1564

Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher &

Flom, 469

Skills standardization, 398

Skinheads, 460, 461

Skinner, B. F., 722

depression postulate, 650

operant reinforcement theory, 209, 210, 1716, 2085

utopian design, 3204

Skinner, Denise A., 2417

Sklair, Leslie, 227, 1085

Skocpol, Theda, 416, 426, 1102

and comparative-historical sociology, 383, 384, 385

historical sociology study, 1196, 1198

on Iranian revolution, 1870

and macrosociology, 1704, 1707, 1708, 1709

and metatheory, 1852

political sociology theory, 2163, 2164–2165

on social dynamics, 2664

and voluntary associations, 3229, 3230

Skoe, Eva E., 1900, 1903

Skolnick, Jerome, 2108, 2114

Skvoretz, John, 2029

Slater, P. E., 696

Slater, Philip J., 1734, 1974

Slavery and involuntary servitude,

2596–2610

and abolitionist movement’s success, 2725

in Africa and Middle East,

2501–2503, 2604–2608

by African Americans, 54–56, 57–58, 64, 121–122, 320, 321, 2333, 2491–2492, 2599–2601

in the Americas, 2598–2601

in Asia, 2602–2603, 2604–2608

Asian sex trade as, 2607

as background to contemporary African American

problems, 2333

British sociological study of modern, 228

capitalism and, 238, 239, 321

definition of, 2596

examples in 1998 (table of), 2604–2608

forced child labor, 2605– 2607, 3262

as human rights issue, 1238

imperialism and, 320–321 international efforts against, 2607 interracial marriage and,

1407–1408

and land-labor ratio hypothesis, 2596, 2597–2598, 2600–2601, 2607–2608

marriage and family structures, 121–122

patterns since 1990, 2603–2608 penal, 518, 2603, 2608

slavery vs. involuntary servitude, 2596–2597

stratification parameters, 2810–2811

and systemic power, 2166 Sleeper, Jim, 53

‘‘Slippery slope’’ argument assisted suicide and, 587 civil liberties and, 318

Slit-half consistency, 2347–2348 Sloan Kettering Hospital, 588 Slomcyznski, Kazimierez M., 2070 Slovak Republica, 1934, 1946, 1947 Slovenia, 1941, 2136, 2362

Slum neighborhoods, community studies, 365

Small, Albion, 1423, 1424, 2192

Small Group Behavior (journal), 1980

Small Group Research (journal),

1979, 1980

Small groups, 2610–2622 case studies, 244–245 censuses, 283–284 coalitions within, 330

cohesion and productivity, 2516, 2614–2615, 2619

conformity in, 2615–2617 cooperation and competition

within, 2620–2621 division of labor within, 696 games and, 330

group dynamics and, 1014, 2611 influence in, 2615–2617 interaction and performance,

2617

interpersonal systems, 2775–2777 leadership in, 2619–2620 mathematical formulations, 1790 minority influence in, 2616–2617

and nonmember responses, 2777

observation methods, 1974–1981, 2612–2613

perceptions of inequity in, 2777

persuasion in, 2776

polarization, 2617

primary and secondary, 2610–2611

research approaches, 2612–2614

role assignments, 695, 2422– 2423, 2774–2775, 2776–2777

and social comparison theory, 2650, 2652–2654

and social dynamics, 2666

social psychology studies on, 2770–2771, 2775–2777

Small Social Structures: An Introduction to Structural Microsociology

(Szmatka), 2120–2121

Smart, Niman, 3278–3279

Smeeding, Tim, 2452

Smelser, Neil, 553, 733, 1885,

2069, 2914

collective behavior theory, 352–353, 2635

and economic sociology, 2921

on industrialization, 1197

on nationalist movements, 1941–1942, 1943

Smelser, William T., 2069

Smith, Adam, 2335, 3098, 3243

on division of labor, 697, 1782

economic exchange theory, 721, 722, 2337

and individualism, 1302, 1305, 1306

industrial sociology and, 1308, 1309

and liberalism, 355, 1597

mass society theorists and, 1771

social development theory of, 2340

on social justice, 2698

on sympathy, 782

Smith, Anthony, 227, 1941, 1943

Smith, Brian T., 2961

Smith, Cyril, 225

Smith, David H., 1885–1886

Smith, Dorothy E., 246, 2958

Smith, Dwight C., Jr., 2018

Smith, Elliot, 675

Smith, Gerald L. K., 2370

Smith, J. H., 225

Smith, Joseph, 3287

Smith, Louis, 1636

Smith, Michael, 1214, 1215

Smith, Peter B., 3213, 3214, 3216

Smith, Thomas, 2243

Smith, Tom W., 3091

Smith Richardson Foundation, 1601

Smith-Lever Act of 1914, 24126

Smith-Lovin, Lynn, 1790

Smithsonian Institution, 1039

Native American artifact repatriation, 137

Smoking

illicit drug use correlation, 711 peer influence and, 667

as preventable health hazard, 1639–1640

smokers’ cognitive dissonance on, 338

Smolenska, M. Zuzanna, 118

Smolla, R. A., 268

SMOs. See Social movement organizations

Smuts, Jan Christian, 2088

SNCC. See Student Nonviolent

Coordinating Committee

Snedecor, George W., 3035

Sniderman, Paul M., 2245

Snow, David, 554, 1237

Snow, John, 814

Snowball samples (public opinion polls), 2445

Snyder, David, 2270

Sober, Elliott, 118

Social action, 1306

components of, 352 participatory research and,

2038–2040

theory of social resources and, 2790–2791

Social and Cultural Dynamics

(Sorokin), 2662

Social and Cultural Report

(Netherlands), 2685

Social and political elites, 2622–2629

and authoritarian state development, 2999–3000

bases of, 2163

classical elite theory, 2623–2624

conflict mobilization, 415

as conflict theorist deviance factor, 670, 2660

as conformity influence, 403–404

conservative ethos and, 1598–1599

critical/radical theorists, 2624–2626

cultural transmission by, 2171

definition of elites, 2622

democracy and, 2164, 2627

and fertility, 1007

as governing class, 604

and hierarchical inequality, 2693

Jewish liberal ethos and, 1603

limitations of elite paradigm, 2627–2628

as Marxist deviance theory factor, 670

mass media control by, 2166

mass society theory on, 1772–1773

and pluralistic representation, 2164, 2624–2626, 2627

and political correctness, 2139–2142

political power development by, 2162–2163, 2163–2164

and popular culture, 2168– 2169, 2171

public opinion polling and, 2278–2279

religious orientation and, 2385

revolution and, 2411–2412, 2414, 3000–3001

and social movements, 2717, 2725

Soviet Communist Party

nomenklatura, 2850

and state development, 2997–3002

and status attainment, 2787

and status incongruence, 3053–3054

structuralist political sociological view of, 2162–2163

in tribal societies, 2809–2810

utopian analysis and design, 3202–3203

voting behavior and, 604

See also Status attainment

Social anthropology. See Sociocultural anthropology

Social anxiety, 2512

Social attributions, 197–198

Social behavior, 194, 1254, 1255, 1274, 1824

exchange theorists on, 2669–2675

observation systems, 1973–1981

and other components of human action, 2632–2634

social comparison and, 2653–2654

sociobiology and, 288087

‘‘Social Behavior as Exchange’’ (Homans), 2670

Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms

(Homans), 722, 2670

Social belonging, 2629–2637

community and, 2520, 2521

conformity and, 403–404, 2630

definition of, 2630

deviant behavior in absence of, 535, 667, 668

inclusion and, 2365, 2633

marginalization and, 2367, 2634–2635

membership and nonmembership groups, 2634–2635

participation definition, 2635

structure of, 2630–2632

territorial belonging and, 2629–2630, 2632, 3129, 3131–3132

Social capital, 2637–2641

in adulthood, 35

and career advancement, 1993

community social reform and, 366

definitions of, 366, 2637, 2639

delinquent subcultures’ lack of, 513

and educational attainment, 2930

forms of, 2638–2639

negative effects of, 2640

social networks as, 1993, 2637, 2639, 2640, 2732, 2733–2734

and upward mobility, 2714, 3043–3044

Social casework, 2841, 2842, 2843

Social categorization, 197

Social change, 2641–2649

adolescence and, 14

anomie and, 164

attitudes as indicators of, 190–191

and British sociology, 225

communitarian view of, 359–360

conservative view of, 1599

convergence theories, 421–428

countercultures and, 461

culture lag and, 2644

cumulative effects, 2643–2648

demographic change in relationship with, 632, 703–704, 2642, 2643

discontinuous, 2643, 2676–2677

family religious orientation and, 936–942

globalization and, 1084

and Italian sociology, 1471–1473

in kinship structure, 1502–1503

Kuhn’s model of, 2024–2027, 2756

macrosociological theory and research, 1705

main sequence theory of, 1502

Marxist view of, 3066

Mexican studies on, 1857, 1858–1859, 1861

model for directed, 2687–2688

no-fault divorce and, 703–704

parental characteristics and, 2032–2033

race and class issues and, 322–323

religious organizations and, 2379–2380

social dynamics vs., 2663–2665

social forecasting and, 2676–2680

social indicators analysis, 2681–2688

and social movement emergence, 2718

social movements and, 2717– 2725

social work and, 2842 structural lag and theories of,

3066–3067 technology and, 2680

values and openness to, 3216 violence reduction

suggestions, 76

Social Change in the Industrial

Revolution (Smelser), 1197

Social Choice and Individual Values

(Arrow), 2920 Social citizenship, 1304 Social class

adulthood and, 27, 33 aging and, 1138 alcohol use and, 94

alienation and, 102–103 American families and, 122 anomie and, 1491, 1494 attributional patterns, 196 authoritarian personality and, 317 caste and inherited status,

249–255

church-sect typology and, 2378 community studies findings,

363–364

conflict theory, 414–416, 536–537 convergence theory, 424–425 courtship endogamy, 484, 486 and criminal and delinquent

subcultures, 513

cultural studies and, 2169–2173 cultural taste differences,

1648–1649 depression/stressor relationship

and, 656

education and, 742–746 educational attainment and,

2930–2931

emotional depression and, 655 family size and, 975

fertility change and, 1009, 3043 fundamentalism and, 2378 gendered differences on romantic

love and, 1700 gradational groupings, 2816 health behavior and, 1129

higher education and, 1179

historical variations in, 1198, 1199

illegitimacy and, 1261

incongruence factor, 3049–3055

industrial psychology and, 1309

inequalities and, 1218, 2689–2694

interrelationship with race. See Class and race

juvenile crime and, 1491– 1492, 1494

kinship and family systems and, 1511–1512

labor movement orientation and, 1529–1530

language use and, 2901, 2908

legal autonomy theory and, 1556

and legislation of morality, 1576, 1577, 1579

leisure and, 1584–1585, 1588

liberal/conservative orientation and, 1597, 1602–1603, 1603

life expectancy and, 1138, 1631

marital communication patterns and, 1736

Marxist analysis of, 1753, 1754–1755, 1756, 2162–2163, 2692, 2812

Marxist legal theory and, 1553, 1576

mate selection and, 1775–1776

measurement devices, 2866–2867

mental disorder epidemiology and, 1835–1840

mobility and, 2711–2716

music and, 1926

and ‘‘new middle class’’ emergence, 2815

and occupational prestige ranking, 2000, 3265

oppositional frameworks for, 2692

Polish sociology and, 2120

political organization membership and, 2150

popular culture transmission and, 2168–2173

poststructuralist view of, 1756

professions and, 2259–2265

religious organizations and, 2378, 2380

religious orientation and, 2384–2385

self-concept of adults and, 2508

socialization emphasis and, 2772–2773

societal stratification and, 2866

sociological concept of, 1198

status allocation and, 2780– 2781, 2812

status attainment and, 759, 3042–3049

status crystallization and, 3051

status incongruity and, 3049– 3054

structural lag and, 3063

and structure research, 2807–2820

tourism and, 3166

voluntary associations and, 3227

voting behavior and, 604, 3233, 3234

white-collar crime and, 3246, 3251–3252

See also Middle class; Social and political elites; Social stratification; Status attainment; Working class

Social Class and Mental Illness

(Hollingshead and Redlich), 1813

Social cognition. See Social perception

Social cohesion, 1080

Social comparison processes,

2649–2657

conformity and, 402

and justice evaluation, 2654, 2701–2702, 2705

and reference group comparison, 2702–2704, 2752–2753

self-concept and, 2507, 2650, 2651, 2653, 2856

and social comparison theory, 402, 2507, 2649, 2650–2651

Social conformity. See Compliance and conformity

Social conservatism, 357, 359

Social Construction of Reality, The

(Berger and Luckmann), 226, 2957–2958

Social constructionism. See Constructionist perspective

Social contagion theory, 679

Social contract, 528, 535, 1310, 1933

Social control, 2657–2662

conflict theory reactions to deviance and, 669–670

control theory, 535, 536, 537, 1495

over corporations, 443–444

criminal sanctions as, 518–519, 521, 528, 2659

of crowds and riots, 556–557

internal vs. external, 2657

marriage licenses as, 948

medical profession as form of, 1815–1816

micro-level deviance theories and, 662, 666–670, 672

motivation and, 2060–2061

neighborhood stability as, 664

personal autonomy vs., 2061

police as agents of, 537, 556–557, 2107–2114

psychopharmacological drugs used as, 1841

public opinion as, 2272

rape as, 2576, 2580

risk and, 667

sanctions and, 666–667, 671

and social disorganization theory, 1495, 2657

social order distinguished from, 2657, 2661

social welfare and, 2841

socialization as internalization of, 2856

types of, 518

workplace, 3274–3275

See also Law and legal system; Law and society

Social credit, 2734

Social Darwinism, 63, 66, 423, 2332

city development theories, 308

and eugenics, 1272

evolutionary perspective, 878–879

and generative religious movements, 2367

racial theory of, 2330, 2334

Social Democratic Party (SPD;

Germany), 1753, 2163, 2623

Social democratic systems, 377

Social demography. See Demography

Social determination theory, 2956–2957, 2957, 2958

Social Diagnosis (Richmond), 2843

Social Differentiation (Svalastoga),

2867

Social dilemmas, 595–596, 3220

group size and, 1121–1122

Social disorganization theory, 366, 532, 1495, 2657, 2759–2760

Social distance, 177, 2693

model of, 2027–2028

Social dynamics, 2662–2669

of collective behavior, 352–354

of conformity, 400–404

dynamic sociology and, 1027, 1028

dynamic vs. static models, 2666–2667

French School of Sociology and, 1027, 1028

main contexts of, 2603

social change vs., 2663–2665

social organization and, 2735–2745

systems theory, 3102–3105

types of dynamic models, 2667–2668

Social Dynamics; Models and Methods

(Tuma and Hannan), 2668

Social ecology, 792–793

Social equilibrium, 1210

Social evolution. See Evolution: biological, social, cultural

Social exchange theory, 2669–2776

altruism and, 115

applications of, 2674–2675

behaviorism and, 208

economic determinism and, 722, 723

and emotions, 786

and exchange connections, 2672

and intergenerational resource transfers, 1394

of interpersonal power, 1459–1463, 2674

and job satisfaction, 3272, 3275

and justice evaluation model, 2703–2704

and mail survey design, 3091

major proponents, 2670–2674

as major social order school, 2337–2338

marital adjustment scale, 1728, 1729–1730

marital satisfaction and, 1729

marriage market and, 1777

money and, 1890

negotiation processes and, 1950

parity and, 330

and Polish sociology, 2119

rational choice theory and, 2335

and Scandinavian sociology, 2452

on sexual behavior, 2537, 2538

social capital and, 2637– 2639, 2640

social networks and, 2672–2674, 2730, 2731, 2733

as social psychology perspective, 2670, 2768

and social resources theory, 2790–2794

Social Forces (journal), 1528,

1606, 1870

Social forecasting, 2676–2681

future trends, 2680

futures studies, 1037–1042

judgmental and qualitative models, 2677–2678

pragmatic statistical analysis of time series, 2679

prediction and futures studies, 2224–2233

social demography and, 2678–2679

social indicators for, 2685

Social gerontology. See Aging and the life course; Filial responsibility; Intergenerational relations; Intergenerational resource transfers; Long-term care; Long-term care facilities; Retirement; Widowhood

Social identity theory, 1057, 1111, 1113, 2750, 2778

and group conflict resolution, 1112, 1113

language and, 2906–2908

Social imitation. See Behaviorism; Social learning theory; Social

psychology; Social learning theory; Socialization

Social impact assessment, 2619, 2687

Social imperatives, life course and, 1619

Social indicators, 2681–2689

criterion indicators, 2683

data banks and, 576

definitions and examples of, 2301, 2681–2682

descriptive, 2684

historical developments in, 2682–2683

life satisfaction/happiness indicators, 2683–2684

policy analysis function of, 2687–2688

public enlightenment function of, 2685–2686

of quality of life, 2299–2307, 2685, 2686–2687

and secondary data analysis, 2473–2481

time use as, 3153–3154

Social Indicators (Bauer), 2682

Social Indicators of Well-being: Americans’ Perceptions of Life Quality (Andrews and Withy), 2300

Social Indicators Research (journal),

2683–2684, 92682–92683

Social Indicators Research: An

International Journal of Quality of

Life Measurement, 2301

Social inequality, 2689–2695

beliefs about, 2704–2705, 2808

changes in forms of, 2820

and criminal sanctions, 2962

degree of dispersion, 2868–2869

dichotomous categories of, 2692–2693

distributional theories of, 2690–2691, 2694, 2696

globalization and, 1087, 1088, 2691, 2705–2708

as hierarchical relationship, 2693, 2694, 2781

human ecology and, 1215

and income distribution in the United States, 130, 140, 142,

689–690, 1281–1282, 2691, 3048

intelligence and, 1384–1385

and social justice, 2696, 2701, 2705–2707

and Soviet socialism, 2850

and status allocation, 2780–2789, 2807–2820, 2813

and time-use indicators, 3154

in utopian designs, 3202–3203

as vertical classification, 2691–2693, 2694

See also Discrimination; Equality of opportunity; Social and political elites; Social stratification; Societal stratification

Social instability, causes of, 1230

Social insurance, long-term care, 1659–1660, 1677

Social integration, 79, 1223–1224

as suicide protection, 1595

Social interaction, 44, 117, 196, 208, 772, 1027, 1253, 1347, 2085

conflict resolution, group, 1111–1117

conflict resolution, interpersonal, 1451–1456

conversation analysis, 431–439

differential association theory, 533

Durkheim on, 1030

and emotions, 2523

functionalism and structuralism, 1030

grammars of, 2897–2899

interpersonal power, 1456–1464

marital adjustment, 1729–1730

microlevel collective behavior, 350–352

nursing home adaptation, 1675–1676

personal dependency, 2062–2068

and Polish sociology, 2119

small groups, 2613–2614, 2617–2620

and social exchange theory, 2669–2775

symbolic interactionist modeling, 2298

See also Personal relations

Social Interaction Systems: Theory and

Measurement (Bales), 1014

Social isolation, 176, 178

Social justice, 2695–2711

beliefs about inequality, 2704–2706

definition of, 2696

distributive justice theories, 2701–2704

distributive vs. procedural justice, 2699–2700

entitlement theory, 2699

equity theory, 2700–2701

and group conflict resolution, 1116

income inequality and, 2705– 2706

mathematical models of distributive, 1790

as moral judgment orientation, 1902–1903

in organizational structure, 2003–2004, 2014

perception of, 2696–2697

philosophical roots of, 2697–2699

principles of, 2701

proportionality principle, 2697

Rawls principles of, 2698–2699, 2700, 3205

referential comparisons, 2702– 2704

research areas, 2705–2707

social comparison process and, 2654, 2701–2702, 2705

social exchange theory and, 2671, 2703–2704

utopian designs and, 3201–3206

and work orientation, 3272

See also Affirmative action; Comparable worth; Court systems and law; Discrimination; Gender

Social Lamarckism, 879

Social learning theory, 1716–1717

on aggression, 70–71, 75, 1716

on altruism, 115

on attitudes, 185

deviance and, 666–667, 668, 672

on femininity/masculinity, 999

moral development and, 1895

on overdependency, 2067

on personal dependency, 2064

as personality theory, 1716–1717

on sexual behavior, 2537, 2538

as social psychology perspective, 2768–2769

and socialization theory, 1715–1717, 2855–2856

subcultural explanations of crime and, 534

Social Life of a Modern Community, The (Warner and Lund), 364

Social loafing effect, 2619

Social mobility, 2711–2717

collective, 2715–2716

convergence theories and, 425

education and, 756, 758

illegitimacy and, 1260

industrialization and, 1311

intergenerational, 1982–1984, 2711–2713

minority suburbanization and, 3074–3075

Scandinavian sociology studies, 2452

and status incongruence, 3049–3054

three traditions of, 2817

See also Occupational and career mobility; Social stratification; Status attainment

Social morphology, 515, 518, 1024, 1031

Social movement organizations (SMOs), 2722–2724, 2725, 2763

Social movements, 2717–2727

and age-strata changes, 3064–3065

black civil rights. See Civil rights movement

characteristics of successful, 2725

collective behavior theories and, 349, 350–352

countercultures, 459–463

and criminal law construction, 1576

effectiveness of, 2724–2725

emergence of, 2718–2720

information-based, 1347

interest group size and, 604

Internet as, 406–407

labor unionization as, 1527–1534

life history data, 1635

Mexican opposition party as, 1861

music and, 1927

nationalist, 1940–1948

organizational approach to, 2162, 2163–2164

organizations, 2722–2724, 2725

outcomes, 2724–2725

participation in, 2720–2722

participatory research, 2038–2042

political power and, 2164, 2165

religious movements as subcategory of, 2364–2375

revolution as, 2412

as significant sources of democracy, 606

social problems and, 2763

and status incongruence, 3050

and structural lag, 3064–3065

technological risk and, 2877

theory, 939

types of, 2717–2718

See also Protest movements;

Student movements

Social networks, 1255, 2727–2735

in adulthood, 35

as career advancement tool, 1993

community integration/deviant behavior relationship, 664– 665, 716

and community of limited liability thesis, 367

and consensus formation, 2379

consequences of, 2731–2734

and crowd participation, 560

diagrams of, 2729, 2730

divorce as weakening effect on, 706, 707

and economic sociology, 736–737

and exchange theory, 2672–2674, 2730, 2731, 2733

functions of, 2727

and innovation diffusion models, 678

and interpersonal diffusion, 677

mathematical modeling of, 1789–1790, 2729

as meaningful work source, 665

and measurement of social organization, 2738–2739

models, 2029, 2298

and peer deviant behavior, 666

and Polish sociology, 2122

precursors, 2728–2730

and rational choice, 2731

as social capital, 1993, 2637, 2639, 2640, 2714, 2732, 2733–2734, 3043–3044

and social movement participation, 2721

and social perception, 2753

and social resources theory, 2790–2794

as spousal division of labor influence, 696

and status attainment, 3044

‘‘strength of weak ties’’ hypothesis, 2693, 2731–2732, 2791, 2792, 2827

structural properties/structuring of, 1034–1035, 2729–2731, 2827

urban interactions, 3193

and widowhood support, 3259–3260

and workers’ employment outcomes, 3265

Social Networks (journal), 1790, 2734

Social norms. See Social values and norms

Social Order of the Slum, The

(Suttle), 363, 365

Social organization, 2735–2748

adolescence and, 3

age stratification and, 79–80

aging and, 79

American society and, 146

anomie and, 166

attitudes as links within, 184

Blau’s landmark theory of, 699

childhood and adolescence peer groups, 2859

classification of units, 2739–2741

collective agency, 2744

commitment and trust, 2744–2745

complexity and, 2739

definition of, 2735–2736 economic sociology and, 732 endurance and, 2737–2738 evolution and, 1271

form and, 2736–2737 globalization and, 1092 hybrid forms of, 2738–2739 industrial sociology and,

1308, 1309

information society and, 1347 logic of, 1092

major schools of, 2337 marriage as institution

within, 1734

military sociology and, 1882 pluralism and plasticity,

2742–2743

pragmatic principles and, 221 rational choice theory and, 2338 of religion, 2376–2386

rural sociology and, 2425–2433 scale and, 2737–2738 segmentation and, 2737, 2743 sentiments and, 2524–2525

as social capital, 2639

social movements and, 2722– 2724

specialization and, 2737, 2743 standardization and, 2743–2744 stratification and, 2737

and technological risk, 2878–2880

See also Division of labor

Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States

(Laumann et al.), 2550

Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Moore), 2918 Social perception, 2748–2755 accuracy of, 2751–2752

attribution theory, 192, 2751 cognitive consistency theories,

334–341

group perception, 2752–2753 leadership and, 1570

person perception, 2750–2752 racial prejudice and, 2243–2246 self-perception, 2750

Social phenomenology. See

Phenomenology

Social philosophy, 2755–2758

communitarianism, 354–362

postmodernism, 2205–2209, 2757, 2758

pragmatism, 2217–2224

religious orientation, 2382–2386

Social physics (Comte concept), 818

Social planning, 539

Social Planning/Policy and

Development Abstracts, 1609

Social policy analysis. See Public policy analysis

Social power. See Social and political elites; Social control

Social prestige. See Occupational prestige; Social and political elites: Social mobility; Status Attainment

Social problems, 2759–2766

and community reform, 365–366

deviance theories, 662–671

objectivist paradigm, 2759– 2760, 2764

social movements defining, 2717, 2719, 2724–2725, 2763

subjectivist paradigm, 2760–2764

Social Problems (journal), 2759, 2762

Social psychology, 2766–2780

anomie conceptions, 166–167, 1024

attribution theory and, 192–198

censorship and, 278

coalition formation theories, 330

cognitive dissonance theory, 335, 337–340

counterculture implications, 460

and courtship study, 483

cross-cultural analysis method, 549–550

on fashion behavior, 679

femininity/masculinity measurement, 999–1000

first experiment (1897), 2615

on gender-mental health equation, 1838

on genocide, 1070

individual-level concepts, 2769–2770

of language, 2895

major personality theories, 1712–1718

and Marx’s alienation concept, 1705

observation systems, 1973–1991

and pragmatism, 2217–2222

relationship with sociology, 2915, 2921

as religious studies perspective, 3277, 3278

role theory, 2415, 2417–2418, 2768, 2772

and self-concept, 2505–2509

and self-esteem, 2511–2518

and small groups, 2610–2621

and social exchange theory, 2670, 2768

and social mobility, 2714

and social structural effects, 2772–2775

and socialization, 2855

and stress, 3055–3057

symbolic interactionism perspective, 2767–2768, 3095–3101

theory and method, 2767–2769

voting behavior research, 3234–3238

and work orientation, 3271

See also Affect control theory and impression formation; Attitudes; Behaviorism;

Cognitive consistency theories; Collective behavior; Emotions; Field theory; Personality theories

Social psychology of status allocation, 2780–2789

history of theoretical field, 2781–2782

See also Social stratification

Social reality. See Phenomenology; Sociology of knowledge

Social Reality of Death, The

(Charmaz), 583

Social reform

community in context of, 365–366

liberal vs. conservative view of, 1602

Social relations. See Personal relations

Social reorganization, 225

Social representations, 197–198

Social reproduction, 756, 758

Social resources theory, 2790–2795

aging and, 79

network vs. contact resources, 2792

Social revolutions. See Revolutions

Social roles

aging and, 79

altruism and, 117

life cycle and, 1623

sex differences and, 2530

and stratification systems, 2807–2808

See also Gender roles; Parental roles; Role theory

Social Science Computer Review

(journal), 407, 409, 411, 414

Social Science Computing

Association, 407

Social Science Data Archives (SSDA),

575–577, 579–580

common goals and tasks, 579–580

Social Science Research Council,

227, 576, 1634, 2274

Center for Coordination of

Research on Social

Indicators, 2682

Committee on Sociolinguistics, 2903

Political Development project, 2154

Social Science Research Council

Fellowship, 324

Social Science Research Council Sexuality Research Fellowship, 2550

Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI),

1607, 1608, 1610–1611, 2923

Social Sciences Index, 1608

Social Security Act of 1935,

2403, 2798

Social Security Act of 1962, 1524

Social Security Administration,

2398, 2795

Social Security Amendments of

1983, 1524, 2407, 2799

Social security systems, 2795–2807

age at receiving benefits, 2180, 2404, 3061

comparative perspectives, 2796, 2799–2801

consequences of, 2801–2802

coverage and benefits distribution, 2796

establishment of, 2403, 3065

funding of, 2798–2799, 2803–2805

historical background, 2797–2799

and intergenerational resource transfers, 1395, 1396

male labor-force participants and, 1524

means-testing and, 2796–2797, 2798

older people’s benefits, 79, 925–926, 965, 967, 2403, 2404, 2406, 2795

pay-as-you-go system, 2799

policy problems and issues, 2802–2803

recent trends, 2803–2805

spousal and survivor benefits, 2406

Supplemental Security Income,

1145, 1146, 1286

See also Social welfare systems; Welfare state

Social Security throughout the

World, 2795

Social Statistics (Blalock), 3035

Social status. See Social class; Status attainment; Status incongruence

Social stratification, 2807–2821

American system, 142–143, 2815–2816, 3043–3044

ascriptive process of, 2809, 2817–2819, 3042, 3043, 3045

attribution theory and, 198

basic concepts of, 2808–2809

convergence theories, 425

and criminal sanctions, 515, 518

and cross-cultural analysis, 550

education and, 756, 758, 2927, 2929–2931, 3043–3044

in eight ideal-typical systems, 2810

elites and, 2622–2628

and emotions, 777

and ethnicity, 844–847, 2818–2819

and expectation states theory, 880, 882

forms of, 2809–2814

and gender, 2818–2819

and German sociology, 1076, 1078

gradational groupings, 2816

hierarchical continuum, 2781

and industrial sociology, 1309, 1311, 1314

legal equity and, 2961–2962

levels of, 518, 2690–2694

literary sociology and, 1648–1649

as Marxist emphasis, 1753, 1754–1755, 2162, 2163, 2410–2411, 2813, 2814–2815

and meritocracy, 2626–2627

multidimensional approach to, 2818–2819

nationalism and, 1942

and occupational prestige, 2996–2000, 3265

and personality, 2070–2071

and Polish sociology, 2120

and popular culture, 2170–2171

professions and, 2259

and race, 253, 558, 2818–2819

revolution theory and, 2410–2411

rigidity of system, 2809

Scandinavian sociology studies, 2453

in science, 2457, 2460

as social organization, 2737

social psychology of, 2780–2789

socialist countermeasures, 2850

and societal stratification, 2864–2874

sources of, 2812–2814

and status attainment, 3042–3049

and status crystallization, 2809, 3051

and status determination, 2781

and status incongruence, 3049–3054

and theories of the state, 2162, 2163