Encyclopedia of Sociology Vol

NOVA (Norwegian Institute for Research on Childhood and Adolescence, Welfare, and Aging), 2451, 2452

Novak, Michael, 3286

Novels. See Literature and society

Novosibirsk Institute of Industrial Economics and Organization, 2980

Nowak, Stefan, 2119, 2120, 2121

Nozick, Robert, 2699, 3204–3205

N-person games, 329, 2335, 3221

NRMs. See New religious movements

NSD. See Norwegian Data Service

NSF. See National Science

Foundation

Nuclear disasters, 2875

Chernobyl power plant, 683, 686, 805, 2875, 2876, 2877

planning and research, 682, 686

Nuclear family, 1058, 1259

American historical, 120, 121, 142, 1502–1503, 1504

coalitions within, 331–332

communitarian support for, 359

divorce effects on, 706–707

economic and kinship factors in, 1502–1503

fertility decline and, 628

and intergenerational relations, 1389

‘‘provider’’ vs. ‘‘homemaker’’ role, 696

Nuclear weapons, 2363, 3242–3243

deterrence coalitions, 331

disarmament movement, 2723

terrorism as strategy component, 3138

Nuer, The (Evans-Pritchard), 2890

Null hypothesis, 456

Numerosity heuristic, 594

Nunes, Rosado, 941

Nunn, Sam, 1881

Nunnally, J. C., 1794

Nuremburg Trials, 1429

Nurses

increase in, 1819

as medical-industrial complex component, 1818, 1822

terminal patient care, 582, 587–588

Nursing homes, 1664–1678 characteristics and distribution

of, 1668

definitions of, 1653–1654 depression of residents of, 656 hospice units, 1671

increased numbers of, 1819 institutionalization effects on,

1672–1676

international variations in, 1654 as medical-industrial complex

component, 181 models of, 1665–1667

percentage of population in, 1653

personal interactions in, 1676 profile of residents, 1667–1668 proprietary ownership, 1821 quality of care in, 1661

recent trends in, 1671–1677 special needs units, 1671 standards, 1669–1671 utilization and expenditures,

1148, 1149 Nurturance

and care-based moral reasoning, 1900, 1902–1903

gendered roles and, 1058 Judaic emphasis on, 1510 motherhood and, 2036

Nutrition. See Eating and diet Nyden, Philip W., 603

Nye, F. Ivan, 1488

Nye, Joseph, 2124

Nyerere, Julius, 1319

NYS. See National Youth Survey

O

Obedience. See Compliance and

conformity

Oberschall, A., 1942

Obesity, 1641, 3077

Object relations theory

adult dependency and, 2063– 2064

personality development and, 2090

Objective self-awareness, 2509

Objectivity. See Epistemology; Measurement; Scientific explanation

Obligations, 2638

O’Boyle, Ciaran A., 2302

OBRA. See Omnibus Budget

Reconciliation Act

O’Brien, John, 2125

O’Brien, Robert M., 1594

Obscenity. See Pornography

Observation systems, 1973–1982 categorical, 1973–1975 dimensional, 1975–1978 future of, 1980–1981

recent developments, 1979–1980 social psychology, 2769 sociocultural anthropology, 2893

Obshechesvennoe mnenie (Russia), 2982 Occupational and career mobility,

1982–1996

collective, 2716 components in, 2714–2717,

3045–3047

and criminal sanctions, 517 economic explanations, 1989–

1990

and educational credentials theory, 2929–2930

and elite theory, 2626 employer perceptions and,

1993–1994

ethnic vs. African-American, 2498 factors in, 2715–2717, 2929 higher education and, 1178–1186 in Hindu caste system, 250–251 income and, 3047–3048

and intergenerational mobility, 1982–1984, 2711–2712

and labor market structure, 1984–1991

mobility tables, 2711–2716 path model, 1692

prestige and. See Occupational prestige

role change and, 2424 social inequality and, 2691 socialist quotas and, 2850 societal stratification and,

2865–2866, 2867

and status attainment, 2782, 2783, 2785–2787, 2817, 2867, 3042, 3045–3049

status attainment measurement, 2867

vacancy chain models, 1990, 2691

worker characteristics and, 1991–1993

See also Caste and inherited status; Education and mobility

Occupational Crime (Green),

3247–3248

Occupational prestige, 1996–2002

professions and, 2259–2260, 2263–2264

ranking stability over time, 1998, 3265

scale developments, 1997–1998

social stratification theories on, 1996–1997

and socialization values, 2773

status measurement, 3265

suicide relationship, 3079

and women professionals, 2262, 2532–2533

and women’s remarriage potential, 2390

Occupational segregation (by sex and race), 379, 2012, 3046, 3262, 3264–3265

Occupations. See Professions; Work

and occupations

Oceania, 623

Ochs, Elinor, 439, 2904

OCR (optical character recognition), 408

Odaka, Kunio, 1479

Odds ratios, 3115–3118

O’Donnell, Guillermo, 1537–1538

OECD. See Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

Oedipus complex, 332, 991, 1273, 1713, 2089

Oeser, Oscar, 2415, 2417

Of Human Bonding (Rossi and

Rossi), 1618

Offe, Claus, 1936, 2163

Office of Censorship (Department of

Defense), 278

Office of Drug Control Policy, 712

Office of Economic

Opportunity, 2398

Office of Environmental Equity, 791

Office of Federal Contract

Compliance Programs, 49

Office of Management and

Budget, 259

Office of Population Research

(Princeton), 637

Office of Scientific Review, 2399

Office of Technology Assessment,

2461, 3105

Office of Technology Assistance, 585

Ofshe, Richard, 901

Ogburn, William F., 576, 1039, 1424, 2644, 2676, 2682, 2684, 2685

cultural lag theory, 3066

Ogives, 659

Oglala Lakota, 3277–3278, 3279,

3281, 3282

O’Hare, William P., 2215

Ohio State University, 681

Center for Human Resource Research, 2475, 2476

leader behavior study, 1565, 1566, 1569

Ohlin, Lloyd, 513, 663, 1494

Oil spills, 2877

Okonkwo, Rachel U. N., 1901

Old-age benefits. See Social security systems

Older adults. See Aging and the life course

Older Americans Act of 1965, 2404

Oligarchy

development of, 229, 603, 2163–2164, 2623–2624

in labor movements, 1532–1533

in political organizations, 2149, 2163–2164

in post-Soviet Russia, 2136

in religious organizations, 2377

Oliner, Pearl M., 118

Oliner, Samuel P., 118

Oliver, Pamela E., 604

Olivetti, Adriano, 1467

Ollman, Bertell, 1705

Olson, Mancur, 604, 2149, 2335,

2338, 2683, 2685, 2920

Olympic Games, 2985, 2987

Oman, 1866

abolishment of slavery, 2602

sociodemographic profile, 2938

Omi, Michael, 319

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act

of 1981, 1825

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act

of 1989, 2399

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act

of 1997, 1665, 1670–1671

Omnibus Reconciliation Act of

1980, 1825

Omran, A.R., 1325, 1326

On Crimes and Punishments

(Beccaria), 528

On Death and Dying (Kübler-

Ross), 582, 583

‘‘On the Human Mind’’ (Aristotle), 2086

On the Jewish Question (Marx), 2961

On the Take (Chambliss), 529

One Nation After All (Wolfe), 358

O’Neill, John, 2208

One-parent households. See Singleparent households

Only children, 974

Ontology of Socialism, The

(Staniszki), 2121

‘‘Open and Closed Relationships’’ (Weber), 2816

Opera, 1925

Operant conditioning. See Operant reinforcement

Operant reinforcement, 209–210, 214, 1716, 2085, 2670

Operation ‘‘Gatekeeper,’’ 1936

Operation ‘‘Wetback,’’ 1936

Operations Research, 3104–3105

Operations Research (journal), 3105

Opinion polls. See Election polling; Public opinion; Survey research

Opium, 714

Opp, Karl-Dieter, 1080

Oppenheimer, Franz, 1074, 1075

Optical character recognition, 408

Optimal matching techniques, 2297

Optimism, 1233

Oral contraceptive, 2178, 2180

Oral histories, 1633

Oral sex, 2553, 2567, 2569

Orbuch, Terri, 1636

Order-deficit theories, 53

See also Assimilation

Ordinal scales, 1793

Ordinary least squares (OLS) estimates, 2251

Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression, 1922, 2437

Ordination of women, 2379

Oregon, right-to-die issue, 587, 3084

Organic farming, 88

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 375, 794, 1041, 2137–2138

Organization of African Unity, 1934

Organizational behavior, 2326

Organizational culture, 2013–2014

Organizational development, 1014, 1015

Organizational effectiveness. See Bureaucracy; Complex organizations; Industrial sociology; Organizational structure; Social organization

Organizational knowledge

data banks and, 574

demographic data, 631

leaders vs. managers, 1564

Organizational structure, 2002–2017

and adaptation to environment, 2005–2008

Blau’s theory of, 698, 2004

bureaucracy and, 229–235

coalitions within, 331, 332, 333

in complex organizations, 392–399

democratic, 601–602, 603, 605, 606

distributive justice in, 1003–1004, 2003–2004, 2014

division of labor in, 696–697, 699, 2002, 2003–2004

and economic sociology, 736, 737–738

effectiveness and efficiency of, 2004–2005, 2010, 2013–2014

elite paradigm and, 2627–2628

and globalization, 1085, 1091

and goal attainment, 393–394, 2008–2011

governing class, 604

and industrial sociology, 1312, 1313, 1314

and intergroup/ interorganizational relations, 1399–1407

internal integration, 2011–2012

and job mobility, 1984–1985, 1986, 1988–1989, 1991–1992

latent factors in strategic planning, 2012–2014

and meritocracy, 2626–2627

oligarchical, 229, 603, 2163–2164, 2623–2624

participatory decision making, 605

participatory research, 2041

and political power, 2997–2998

and political sociology, 2162

postindustrial, 2196

postmodern, 2201

of prisons, 2053, 2056–2057

professions and, 2263, 2264

and religious organizations, 2378–2379

role theory and, 2416–2417, 2422

scientists and, 2460–2461

and social capital, 2639

social movement organizations, 2722–2723

of sociological funding organizations, 2398–2401

systems theory and, 3102–3105

and theory of the state, 2162, 2163–2164

urban societies, 3192–3197

and work orientation, 3269–3276

See also Corporate organizations; Educational organization; Political organizations;

State, The

Organizations

character of, 1314

definitions of, 393–394, 441

disaster planning and reaction, 683, 684, 685

theory of, 1091

See also Bureaucracy; Complex organizations; Corporate organizations; Organizational structure

Organized crime, 505, 530,

2017–2022, 2186

in Italy, 2128, 2129

and political corruption, 2127

in Russia, 2136, 2137

white-collar crime and, 3246

Organized religion. See Religious organizations; World religions; specific religions

‘‘Organizing Religious Work for the 21st Century’’ (study), 2377

Organski, J. F. K., 3242

Orientation to work. See Work orientation

Origins of Private Property, the Family, and the State (Engels), 988

Ornstein’s regression, 3017

Oros, Cheryl J., 2557

Orshansky Index, 2213

Orwell, George, 2139

Osgood, C. E., 335, 336–337

Ossipov, Gennady, 2980, 2982

Ossowska, Maria, 2119

Ossowski, Stanislaw, 2119, 2121

Osterberg, Dag, 2452

Ostow, Mortimer, 2965

Ostrom, Elinor, 3071

O’Sullivan, Lucia, 2558

‘‘Other’’ (feminist theory concept), 989

Otto, Rudolph, 3279

Ottoman Empire. See Turkey

Outsider art, 173

Ouvriers des deux mondes, Les

(monograph collection), 1025

Ouvriers européens, Les (monograph collection), 1025

Overidentified model, 1916–1917

Overpopulation. See Human ecology and environmental analysis; Environmental sociology; Population

Owen, Robert, 2846, 2847,

2849, 3203

Oxford Health Plan, 1822

Oxford Mobility Studies, 226

P

Paci, Massimo, 1468

Pacific Islanders. See Asian-

American studies

Pacificare, 1822

Packer, Herbert, 2020, 2114

PACO (Panel Comparability

Project), 577

PACS (political action committees), 144, 145, 2150

Pagani, Angelo, 1470

Pagani, Enrico, 1464, 1466, 1469

Page, Benjamin I., 2276

Paige, Jeffrey, 390

Pakistan, 1945

and British Empire’s

dissolution, 2362

fertility rate, 2178, 2179

genocide, 1070

Indian border fighting, 2362

political and governmental corruption, 2132

religious movements, 2366, 2485, 3288

slavery and slave-like practices, 2604, 2606

sociodemographic profile, 2938

Palazzo, Agostino, 1470

Paleoanthropology, 2889

Palestine Liberation Organization

(PLO), 2048, 2717

Palestinians, 2048, 2787, 2947

and terrorism, 3137, 3139

Pali texts, 3284

Paluch, Andrzej, 2119

Pan Guangdan, 298

Pan-African Congress, 66

Panama

demographic characteristics, 1535

drug trafficking, 2135

Pandectists, 476

Panel Comparability Project, 577

Panel study, 1686, 1687, 1694, 3036

attrition in, 1691

Panel Study of Income Dynamics

(PSID), 576, 1685, 2475, 2480

Pan-Hellenic Socialist Movement

(Greece), 2130

Panic, 348, 2876

Pan-Indianism, 136–137

Pankhurst, Emmeline, 989

Pannuti, Alessandro, 1472

Papandreou, Andreas, 2130

Pappi, Franz U., 2693

Paradigm shift, definition of, 2025 Paradigms and models, 2023–2031

basic models and applications, 1787–1788

Bayesian statistical model, 2249 computer assisted, 410 definition of model, 2023–

2024, 2028

definition of paradigm, 2023, 2024

differential equation, 1693–1694 of drug use, 716

event history, 1692–1693, 1871–1873

formal models, 2028

functions of models, 2028–2029 hierarchical linear

development, 1174 isomorphism of model, 2024 in mathematical sociology,

1786–1791

in meta-analysis, 1849 nonlinear models, 1788–1789 paradigm vs. theory, 2024 qualitative, 2296–2298 religious shift in, 2964–2971 scientific, 2458–2459 simulation, 2678–2679 sociological applications,

2027–2028, 2248–2249 statistical graphics, 3015–3017 stochastic, 2249, 3036 structural equation

application, 1692 Paraguay, 1539, 2134 Paralinguistic cues. See Nonverbal

behavior Paraprofessionals, 2260 Parental leave policy, 967, 990,

2033–2034

Parental roles, 2031–2038 adulthood and, 27, 28 changing responsibilities of,

2035–2037

child custody awards and, 702 and childhood self-esteem

development, 2513, 2856

and coalition triads, 331–332

communitarian view of, 358–359

and dependency theory, 2064

differential investments theory, 2884–2885

and division of labor, 695–696

divorce effects on, 706

in drug-abuse prevention, 717

and educational attainment, 2930

and family law, 947

and family size, 976

and family violence, 983

and feminist theory, 992– 993, 1028

as fertility transition factors, 625, 628

and gender concept, 1058

Jewish family norms and, 1510–1511

life-cycle transition points and, 1616

marital roles vs., 1508

marital satisfaction pattern and, 1729, 1737

in middle and later years, 2037–2038

and personality development, 2090

power-control theory and, 1490, 1498

prescriptive altruism and, 1508

and remarriage, 2389, 2390–2392

rewards and costs of, 2034–2035

shared, 1058

and socialization, 1028, 2772–2773, 2856–2858, 2862

and support and control, 2857

transition to, 2037, 2856–2862

and upwardly mobile activities, 2714, 2785–2786, 2787

and working mothers, 3266

See also Filial responsibility; Intergenerational relations

Parentela orders model, 1513– 1514, 1515

Pareto, Vilfredo, 2632, 3054

elite theory, 2625, 2626, 2627, 2644, 3050, 3053

on ethnic group formation, 2882

on income distribution, 2690

and Italian sociology, 1464, 1465

and political sociology, 2163, 2164

and rational choice theory, 2335, 2338–2339

on ‘‘residuo’’ of displaying sentiments, 2519, 2528

on territorial belonging, 3134–3135

Paris arcade, 541

Parity distribution of winnings, 330

Parity progression analysis, 1625

Park, Peter, 2040

Park, Robert E., 842, 853,

1401, 2883

assimilation studies, 176, 177

and Chicago School, 243–244,

363, 365, 1772

and collective behavior, 356, 2265

and human ecological approach, 1209, 1210

life histories and narratives, 1633

on marginalization, 2634

and positivism, 2192

and pragmatism, 2220–2221

Park Chung-hee, 2131

Parker, Patricia, 3252

Parkin, Frank, 2815, 2818

Parks, Rosa, 2493, 2494

Parlements (France), 474, 476

Parliamentary system, 1953, 2361

in Canada, 2360

in Israel, 2359

and origins of political parties, 2153, 2154

Parochial schools, 2861, 2931, 2935

Parole. See Probation and parole

Parry, J., 1891

Parsa, Misagh, 1871

Parsons, Talcott, 244, 352, 423, 733, 783, 856, 878, 991–992, 1233, 1457, 1558, 2193, 2450, 2639, 2819, 3130

on American kinship system, 1502–1503, 1504

and antimaterialism, 1783–1784

boundary maintenance concept, 1931

British sociology and, 226

culture and social systems concept, 564–565, 566, 2337

death and social action theory, 581, 582, 583, 584

and evolutionary theory, 878, 1705, 1883

family relations analysis, 1389

four-function paradigm, 1554, 1559–1560, 1978, 2005

and functionalism, 1014, 1025, 1030, 1031, 1537, 1704, 1705, 2341, 2415, 2416, 2421, 2484, 3099

on Gemeinschaft, 2630

general theory of action, 1197

and German sociology, 1076, 1078, 1080

on incest taboos, 1273–1274

as Japanese sociology influence, 1478, 1479

on law and society, 1554–1555, 1558, 1559–1560

macro themes of, 1704

on money’s symbolism, 1890

on music as social structure, 1924

neo-evolutionary modernization theory, 1885, 1886

observation system, 1974, 1978

and post-World War II sociology, 1783–1784

and role theory, 2415, 2425

sick role concept, 1813, 1815

and social belonging/social conformity relationship, 3131–3132

and social definition of health, 1136

and social philosophy, 2057, 2755, 2756

social system analysis, 2825

on sociology of knowledge, 2956

and structure of social belonging, 2630–2631, 2633, 2634

on territorial belonging, 2629–2630

values theory, 3212–3213, 3214

Partial correlation coefficent, 451–452, 453, 457

Partial residual, 3016, 3017, 3018

Participant observation. See Ethnography; Observation

systems; Qualitative methods; Sociocultural anthropology

Participatory democracy, 605, 2164, 2627

Participatory research, 852,

2038–2044

issues in, 2041–2042

methods, 2038

relationship to other fields, 2040–2041

small groups, 2612–2613

Participatory Research Network

(Toronto), 2040

Particle physics, 2459, 2470

Particularism, 355

Partin, Harry, 2380

Partnership, 441, 442

Partnership for a Drug-Free America, 716

Partnership for Organ

Donation, 588

Part-time workers, 1720, 1725, 3262–3263, 3268

Party system. See Political party systems

Parvenu. See Status incongruence

Passagen-Werk (Benjamin), 541

Passas, Nikos, 166

Passeron, Jean-Claude, 2642

Passions, 2518, 2519, 2524, 2529

Passive static-group design, 2321–2322

Passive-observational designs, 2321

Passover narrative, 3282

Pasteur, Louis, 1327

‘‘Past-in-present’’ discrimination. See Discrimination

Pastoralism, 2426

Patent system, 2461

Paternalistic leadership style, 1566

Paternity (family law), 947

Path analysis, 259–260, 266, 455–456, 975, 1692, 3035–3036

models, 1788, 2782, 3035

on status attainment, 3042

and structural equation modeling, 1910

‘‘Path Analysis: Sociological Examples’’ (Duncan), 3035, 3042

Path coefficient, 1908

Path goal theory, 1568–1569

Pathways to Social Class (Bertaux and Thompson), 2662

Patient Self-Determination Act of

1990, 586, 587

Patient-responsive care model, 1666 Patient’s bill of rights, 1826 Patriarchy

child sexual abuse theory, 2581 family system, 1009, 1271, 1490,

1498, 1503, 1579, 1708, 1734 ‘‘father figure’’ as leader, 1566 and feminist gender inequality

theory, 2692, 2886 and feminist rape theory,

2576–2677, 2581 and incest theory, 1275

individual autonomy seen as, 1307

Islamic, 2949–2950 and male prison rape

victims, 2578

object relations theory and, 2064 sociobiological view of, 2886 and widow status loss, 3255

Patrilineal descent, 1515 Patronage, 2125, 2127, 2128, 2131,

2134, 2135

Pattern theory of culture, 564 Patterson, Orlando, 2596, 2597 Pattison, Philippa E., 2298 Patton, T., 2672, 2673

Paul (apostle and saint), 3053 Pauly, John, 1498 Pauperism, 2840–2841 Pawluch, Dorothy, 2763 Pawnship, 2597, 2602

Paxil, 654

Pay equity. See Comparable worth PC. See Political correctness

PD. See Prisoner’s dilemma PDIA. See ‘‘Project Death in

America’’ Peace, 2044–2050

coalition formation and, 332 conscription during, 1876–1877 and group conflict

resolution, 1115

and international law, 1429

peacetime disaster research, 681–682

social movements, 2717, 2719 UN peacekeeping troops, 1429

See also Military sociology; War Peace of Westphalia (1648), 1933,

2363, 2366

Pearlin, Leonard, 656, 3057 Pearson, Geoffrey, 1579 Pearson, Karl, 447, 449, 3035 Pearson product moment

correlation, 1795

Peasant rebellions, 2269, 2412 Burma and Vietnam studies, 2977

Peasantries, 605, 1857, 1859 Chinese socialism’s

glorification of, 2849 decline of, 2431

Peccei, Aurelio, 1038

Pedagogy of the Oppressed

(Freire), 2040

Pedersen, Trond, 2452

Pedriana, Nicholas, 1102, 1106, 1107

Peel, Robert, 2110

Peer groups

as deviant behavior influence, 666–667, 668

and drug abuse, 717

and individual learning, 2932 and interpersonal conflict

resolution, 1453 and self-esteem, 2513

as socialization agents, 2858, 2859–2860

and student movements, 3069 Peer marriage, 359–360

Peer pressures. See Compliance and conformity

Peirce, Charles S., 2218, 2219,

2423, 3098

Peiss, Kathy, 2170

Pelat, Roger-Patrice, 2129

Pelham, B. W., 2512

Pelley, William Dudley, 2370

Pellicciari, Gianni, 1468

Pellizzi, Camillo, 1464, 1470

Pellizzoni, Luigi, 1473

Penal slavery, 518

Pendergast machine, 2126

Pendleton Act of 1881, 2127

Penitentiary movement, 528

Pennati, Eugenio, 1470

Penner, Louis A., 118

Penology, 2051–2057

American prison population increase, 140

and case studies of prison life, 245

and criminal sanctions, 4, 515, 517, 528, 535, 2055–2057

and criminalization of deviance, 525

and deterrence theory, 2056– 2057

and Norwegian sociology, 2453

parole procedure, 2252, 2255–2256

prison population, 714, 2056, 2660

and prison rape victims, 2578

and prisoner labor, 2603, 2608

retribution and rehabilitation policies, 2055–2057

Pension systems. See Retirement; Social security systems

Penty, Arthur, 2196

Peons, 2597

People of Color Environmental

Leadership Summit, 792

People’s Choice, The (Lazarsfeld,

Berleson, and McPhee), 3049

People’s Liberation Army

(China), 2137

People’s Temple, 900

Percentile, definition of, 659

Perception. See Social perception

Perception of graphs, 3009–3011

Perestroika, 2981

Pérez, Carlos Andres, 2135

Pérez Jiménez, Marcos, 2134

Performance

and ‘‘audience effect,’’ 2615

and expectation states theory, 880, 882

and role theory, 2422

and small group interaction, 2617–2620

Performance art, and case studies, 248

Perinatal death, 2236

Period effects

and changes in social values and norms, 2838

definition of, 80, 81

means over time, 1691–1692 Period life table, 612, 614, 1628 Periodicals. See Publications Peron, Juan, 1537

Perrow, Charles, 3104, 3249

Perruci, Robert, 2166

Perry, Albert D., 2729

Perry, W. J., 675

Persian Empire, 2998

Persian Gulf War, 1766, 1875, 1878,

1944, 2720

and international law, 1429 Personal adjustment, marital

adjustment and, 1731 Personal Attributes Questionnaire

(PAQ), 1000

Personal autonomy, 1945, 2058–

2069

definition of, 2058

in leisure roles, 1584–1585 persuasion and, 2098 potential for, 1303

radical individual, 1307

and scientific research, 2461 Personal conduct laws. See

Legislation of morality Personal constructs theory,

1715–1716, 2084

Personal dependency, 2062–2069 integrative view of, 2067–2068 negative views of, 2063–2065 positive views of, 2065–2067

Personal efficacy, 560

Personal hygiene, 2177

Personal relations

affect control in, 45 aging and, 83 dependency and, 2062 identity theory and, 1256 individualism and, 1303

interpersonal attraction and, 1447–1450

interpersonal power and, 1456–1464

life course and, 1620

observation systems, 1973–1981

personality theory and, 2083

role theory and, 2415

self-concept development and, 2506–2508

self-esteem and, 2515–2517

sentiments and, 2520

social capital accumulation from, 2637–2640

and social inequality, 2693

social psychology research on, 2770–2771, 2775–2777

symbolic interaction perspective, 2767–2768

Personal resources. See Social resources theory

Personal responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, 1288, 1719

Personal rulership, 2133

Personalities Theories, Research, and Assessment (Corsini and Marsella), 1712–1713

Personality, definitions of, 2073–2075, 2082–2083

Personality and social structure,

2069–2075

and social belonging, 2633

See also Personality theories

Personality disorders, 1839

Personality measurement, 2073–2082

across-time stabilities, 2076

Big Five (five-factor), 2079–2080

of consistencies, 2075–2076

definitions of terms, 2073–2074

sources of data, 2076–2078

traits worth measuring, 2078–2080

Personality Research Form, 2079

Personality theories, 2082–2093

aggression and, 70, 75

altruism and, 116

approaches to, 2069

Asian-American culture studies, 178

attribution theory and, 193–194

criminal behavior theories and, 506–507

definitions of personality, 2073–2074, 2082–2083 developmental psychology

and, 2088

feminist theory and, 2089 Frankfurt School critical theory

use of, 540

gender bias and, 1902

on genocide-relevant traits, 1070 historical precursors, 2086–2087 and holism, 2088–2089

and homuncularism, 2090–2091 intolerance and, 317

leadership and, 1564, 1565, 1570–1571

major theorists and theories, 1712–1718, 2084–2085

mate selection and, 1777 and modernization theory,

1885–1886

moral development and, 1894–1904, 2089

neuropsychological influences in, 2089–2890

overview, 2083–2086

and personal dependency, 2063–2068

of positive mental health, 2188–2191

and profession research, 2260–2261

prosocial behavior and, 115 relational, 2083

and self-esteem, 2512

and socialization, 2855, 2860 tables of, 1713, 2084–2085 tourism and, 3168

and work satisfaction, 3272–3273 Personalized instruction, 215 Person-centered theory, 1715 Person-years concept, 615–616 Persuasion, 2093–2099

definition of, 188, 2094 extreme influence, 892–902

factors affecting effectiveness of, 2094–2097

in innovation-decision process, 678

overt vs. covert, 2776 research approaches to, 2097

susceptibility vs. resistance to, 2097–2098

Peru

border dispute, 1934 demographic characteristics, 1536 dependency theory, 643

drug crop control program, 714 indigenous empire, 2999 political and social conditions,

1536, 1537 poverty in, 2216

Pescosolido, Bernice A., 3079, 3081

Pessimism, 1233

Pestello, Frances, 2221, 2222

Pestello, Fred, 2222

Pesticides and pesticide control, 88 Peter, Laurence E., 234

Peter the Great, emperor of Russia, 1435

Peters, Robert, 554

Peterson, Richard A., 173, 567,

1647, 1925, 1926, 1927

Petrazycki, Leon, 2117–2118, 2979

Petrocik, John R., 3235

Petrograd University, 2979

Petroleos Mexicanos, 2135

Pettigrew, Thomas F., 2244,

2245, 2246

Petty, Richard, 188

Peyote, 137, 713

Pfeffer, Karl-Heinz, 1076 ‘‘Phalanx’’ (Fourier), 3203 Pharmaceutical companies, 1818,

1824, 1827, 2263

Pharmacists, 2259, 2260, 2261, 2263

Phenomenology, 2099–2107

British sociology and, 226 ethnomethodology and, 856–

860, 2099

German idealism and, 1248 German sociology and, 1080 historical background of, 2099 implications, 2103–2104 Jungian stress on, 1714

life histories and, 1635 personality theory, 2084 practice, 2102–2103 pragmatism and, 2219 social, 246

and sociology of knowledge, 2957

techniques, 2099–2101

theory, 2101–2102

in United States, 2756

Phenomenology of the Social World, The

(Schutz), 226

Phenotype, 2887

Philadelphia Geriatric Morale Scale

(PGCMS), 2304

Philadelphia (Pennsylvania), machine politics, 2126

Philanthropy

as altruism, 114, 115

Judaic linkage of food and, 1510

and social welfare, 2841

See also Voluntary associations

Philippines, 2974, 2975, 2978

development strategy, 645

family size, 977

guerrilla warfare, 2362

low suicide rate, 3079

political corruption, 2131

Phillips, David P., 3079, 3080

Philosophical-Economical Manuscripts

(Marx), 822

Philosophie des sciences sociales

(Worms), 1025

Philosophy. See Social philosophy; specific philosophies

Philosophy and Sociology: From the

Methodological Doctrine to Research

Practice (Mokrzycki), 2120

Philosophy of history, 2644

Philosophy of Money, The

(Simmel), 733

Philosophy of science. See Scientific explanation

Phipps, Polly, 2263

Phoenix House, 715

Phrenology, 1717

PHS. See Public Health Service

Phylogenetic unconscious theory (Freud), 2090

Physical abuse. See Aggression; Child abuse and neglect; Corporal punishment; Family violence; Violence

Physical activities. See Sport

Physical capital, 2637

Physical education, 2986–2987, 2987–2988

Physical Quality of Life Index

(PQLI), 2302

Physicians

assisted suicide by, 585, 586–587, 3083, 3084–3086

comparative health-care systems, 374–375, 377–378, 379, 380

comparative income ratio, 1827

dealing with death by, 582, 587–588

medical sociology studies on, 1813–1815

as medical-industrial complex component, 1818, 1826

practice changes (1970s-1990s), 1819, 1826

professionalization of, 2259, 2261

suicide rate among, 3078

utilization and expenditures, 1148

women as, 2262–2263

Physiognomica (Aristotle), 1717

Piaget, Jean, 1353, 2824

altruism studies, 114, 2087

developmental stages theory, 1894, 1895–1896, 2085, 2092, 2855

moral development theory, 1902, 1903

Piazzi, Giuliano, 1468

Pickering, Andrew, 2459

‘‘Picture brides,’’ 176

Pieretti, Giovanni, 1472

Pigs for the Ancestors

(Rappaport), 2891

Pilgrimages, 3282

Piliavin, Irving, 2943

Piliavin, Jane Allyn, 118

Pinchot, Gifford, 802

Pinna, Luca, 1467

Piore, M. J., 1985

Pirenne, Henry, 2940

Piven, Frances Fox, 101, 603, 604,

606, 2661

Pizzorno, Alessandro, 1467,

1468, 1470

Plains Indians, 3277–3278

Planful competence, 12, 13, 32, 1620, 2860

Planned behavior, theory of, 1128 Planned Parenthood, 958, 2240 Plantation system, 2600–2601 Plate tectonics, 2459

Platen, August von, 1066 Plato, 1644, 2086, 2337, 2519,

2520, 2689

elite theory, 2623, 2627 utopian design, 3292

Playfair, William, 3005, 3006 Plea bargaining, 466, 480, 2960 Pleasure principle, 2087 Pleasure-pain spectrum, 667 Plekhanov, Georgy, 1782 Plessner, Helmuth, 1075, 1234

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), 2491, 2492, 2493

PLO (Palestine Liberation

Organization), 2048, 2717

Plog, S. V., 3168

Plomin, Robert, 2089

Plummer, Ken, 1633, 1636 Pluralistic democracy, 604–605,

2164, 2165, 2360 political elites vs., 2624–

2626, 2627 Pocock, D. F., 1292 Podgorecki, Adam, 2121

Podhoretz, Norman, 1601

Poetics (journal), 1649

Poincaré, Jules-Henri, 821

Poincare, Raymond, 1423

Pol Pot, 1069

Polak, Fred, 1038, 1039

Poland

post-Communist transition, 2136 protest movemnt, 2267 revolution, 3001

social surveys, 577

Solidarity labor movement, 1531, 1532, 2121, 2268, 2365–2366

tourism in, 3169

two-power church-state relations, 2357–2358

unemployment, 3263

See also Polish and Eastern

European sociology

Polanyi, Karl, 384, 387, 724–725,

1224, 1890

Polanyi, Michael, 2261, 2471, 2756

Polar types, 3182–3183

Police, 2107–2116

avocational, 2108–2109

British model, 2110–2111, 2113

community-oriented, 716, 2114

corruption scandals, 2126

crime rate records, 499, 500

drug-abuse prevention programs, 716

interrogation and false confessions, 900–901

military analogy, 2112–2113

preventive patrol by, 2113

private-sector forms, 2109

racial profiling by, 1491

reorientation of, 2113–2114

and riots, 555, 556

significance of uniforms and arms, 2111–2112, 2113

as social control agents, 537, 556–557, 2108–2109, 2660

sociological definition of, 2108–2109

Police: Streetcorner Politicians

(Muir), 2114

Police Work: The Social Organization of

Policing (Manning), 2114

Policeman in the Community, The

(Banton), 2114

Policy agendas. See Political organizations

Polish and Eastern European

sociology, 2116–2123

Polish Peasant in Europe and America, The (Thomas and Znaniecki), 1616, 1618, 1634, 2118, 2220

Polish Society (Szczepanski), 2119

Political action, participatory research and, 2039

Political action committees (PACs), 144, 145, 2150

Political and governmental corruption, 2123–2138

in communist and postcommunist states, 2136–2137

culturally different conceptions of, 2124, 2126–2127

in East Asia, 2130–2131

and forced labor and sexual prostitution, 2606–2607

international measures against, 2137–2138

in Middle East, 2132

in South Asia, 2132

in sub-Saharan Africa, 2132–2134

at U.S. federal government level, 2127–2128

in U.S. local and state government, 2127

in Western Europe, 2128–2130

white-collar crime and, 3248, 3251, 3252–3253

Political correctness, 2138–2142

contemporary, 2139–2142, 2908

effects of, 2142

history of, 2138–2139

Political crime, 2142–2147

definition problems, 2143–2144

deviance perspectives and, 524–525, 527

See also Terrorism

Political discourse, restrictions on, 271

Political elites. See Social and political elites

Political extremism, 2160

Political frontiers. See National border relations

Political machines, 2125–2126, 2135

Political Man (Lipset), 2917

Political organizations, 2147–2153

alienation and, 100–104

in American society, 144–145

elites and, 2623–2624

in Latin America, 1536,

1537–1538

party machines, 2125

political sociology approach to, 2162, 2163–2164

types of, 2148

Political participation. See Voting behavior

Political Parties (Michels), 2623–2624

Political party systems, 2153–2162

alignments and realignments, 2156, 2157

American trends, 144, 145

corruption and, 2125–2126, 2127, 2128–2129, 2132, 2135

definitions of, 2153

extremism and, 2160

fragmentation and, 2157– 2158, 2159

institutional theories of, 2153–2154

and Israeli religious parties, 2359

in Italy, 2128–2129

liberal vs. conservative orientations, 1597

in Mexico, 1857–1858, 1859,

1861, 2135

and minority parties, 2157

modernization theories on origins, 2154–2155

oligarchical leadership in, 2163–2164, 2623–2624, 2624

organizational approach to, 2162, 2163–2165

origin theories, 2153–2155

party loyalty in, 2156

party types and, 2155

polarization and, 2160

political organizations vs., 2148

representation and, 2156– 2157, 2164

research in 1990s, 2159–2160

social cleavages and, 2155–2156

structural features of, 2156–2158

in Turkey, 2132

in Venezuela, 2135

volatility and, 2157

voting behavior and, 3234, 3235, 3236

Political revolutions. See Revolutions

Political science

on coalition formation, 329, 330–332

economics interaction with, 2921

relationship between sociology and, 2916–2917

on uses of corruption, 2124

Political sociology, 2162–2168, 2916–2917

and caste and inherited status, 249–254

and class interests, 2628

and communitarianism, 356

and critical theory, 543

definitions of, 2162

and democracy, 601–606

on elite leadership, 2622–2628

and French School of

Sociology, 1024

and Islamic society, 2941–2942

and Latin American studies, 1537–1538

and liberalism/conservatism, 1596–1603

and macro-level reactions to deviance, 669–670

and mass media research, 1764–1766

multidimensional theory of, 2165–2166

and negotiation of power, 1950–1955

and neoconservatives, 1601

organizational approach to, 2162, 2163–2165

and pluralism, 604–605, 2164, 2165, 2624–2626, 2627

and political expression of religious interests, 2358–2362

and political justice, 2696

and political organizations function, 2150–2151

and public opinion, 2272–2280

and Scandinavian sociology, 2453

and state development, 2996–3003

and status incongruence, 3053–3054

structural approach to, 2162– 2163

survey data collection methods, 575

and survivalist counterculture, 461–462

terrorism research, 3140–3142

two converging traditions in, 2162

and voting behavior, 3231–3238

and war initiation, 3244

See also Marxist sociology; Organizational structure; Religion, politics, and war

Political Systems Performance

Data, 2477

Politics (Aristotle), 1564

Politics of Punishment, The

(Wright), 2054

Polk, Kenneth, 505

Polkinghorne, Donald, 1637

Polley, Richard B., 1980

Polling. See Election polling; Public opinion; Survey research

Pollini, G., 3129

Pollock, Jackson, 656

Pollution. See Environmental

sociology

Polygyny, 1515, 2885

Polytheism, 65

Polythetic-monothetic distinction, 3183–3185

Pontell, Henry, 3250 Pontiac (Ottawa leader), 136

Pooled time series analysis, 2680 Poor laws, 1018, 1019, 1021, 2840 Poor People’s Campaign, 2497 Poor population. See Poverty Popenoe, David, 106, 360

Popitz, Heinrich, 1078

Popline, 1611

Popper, Karl, 822, 1027, 1077, 2193,

2464, 2756

Popular culture, 2168–2175 cohort perspectives, 342–347

critical theory on, 541–542, 2169 high culture debate, 565–566,

1645–1646

music studies, 1925, 1926 social differences in

consumption, 2171 sociology of art and, 173 sociology of culture and, 563 sociology of literature and,

1645–1646 sporting events, 2986 vs. mass culture, 173

See also Mass culture; Mass media; Mass media research; Television

Population, 2175–2184 aging, 636, 1018 American Indian, 133–134 and causal modeling, 259 Chinese trends, 303