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forests and grasslands, each of which contains a rich diversity of plant and animal life, characterize the region. Deciduous (oak) forests covered the hill and mountain regions. In the lowlands, the forests were replaced by riverside (ribbon) forests and marshland environments, with rich terrestrial and aquatic resources that were intensively exploited by the inhabitants. Marsh, meadow, and other aquatic communities border the rivers, oxbows, and other wet depressions dotting the area. The drier interfluves of the lowlands were covered by grassland steppe biota, although some areas were drier than others.

Settlements

Settlement System. By the Early Bronze Age, the settlement system displayed qualities that every student of historic European cultures would find familiar-that of small farming villages dotting the landscape, inhabited by closely related families, pursuing a diversified subsistence strategy, including small-scale craft production, plow agriculture, and diversified pastoralism. Each village is integrated into a larger regional social and economic system, in which it derives access to nonlocal mineral and other goods and to which it owes political allegiances and obligations. Settlement hierarchies emerge with two clearly distinguishable levels in the hilly regions surrounding Pannonia: (1) The upper level sites or regional centers are often located in a commanding position (naturally defensible hill top or spur), fortified (ditch, palisade, stone walls), and permanently occupied. Each river valley area is dominated by one or two such sites. They are frequently associated with a richer metal inventory and are occasionally accompanied by relatively richly equipped individual burials. There are indications of craft activities, and items obtained through long-distance exchange occur more frequently at such sites. By implication of their position and differential access to resources, these sites and their inhabitants probably had additional functions of an economic, social, or religious nature, such as regional centers of metal production and political organization. Most are extremely small and could not have contained large populations. They probably were occupied by no more than the household of the local chief and retainers.

(2) The lower level sites are ubiquitous, very small scale and undifferentiated. Several sites may occur per small stream valley. These represent the local villages or hamlets. In contrast, there is poor evidence for a settlement hierarchy in some of the cultures of the lowlands of Pannonia (i.e., Maros culture).

European Early Bronze Age 141

Community Organization. Few Early Brone Age communities have been completely or extensively excavated. Most have one of two types of plans: (1) organized layout, with houses organized in rows or (2) haphazard layout. The distribution and contents of residential structures suggest that the basic social unit occupying them was the family. Floor areas varied from relatively large on some sites to relatively small. Whether the houses with larger floor size imply an extended family or a nuclear family plus animals is unclear. In the upper level of sites, there can be hierarchical differentiation where an area is fortified or separated (an acropolis). Cemeteries are common in this period and are usually associated with several settlements, indicating that the social community extended beyond the local village community.

Housing. Two types of houses are known: surface and semisubterranean (pit houses). The surface houses are

typically	small	and rectilinear (3 x4; 10 x 8;	7x 5 m),
although	larger	houses are known (22 x 16;	17 x 6 m).

Size varies tremendously. They are made of insubstantial wattle-and-daub architecture with floors made of earth or wooden beams or planks. Pit houses are typically small and were probably occupied for a shorter period. Hearths and clay ovens are commonly found in structures. There is little evidence of functional differences between houses in settlements, because the nature and distribution of artifacts do not vary dramatically. Little is known about the pit houses, which are commonly reported in the literature but poorly published.

Population, Health, and Disease. The regional population increased in size during this time. There are more settlements in every region. The population spread out across the countryside, being distributed in small villages every few km. Communities were mostly small in size (under 100 people). All age groups are represented for males and females. There does not seem to be any evidence for differential mortality between male and female infants or for targeted infanticide. There is relative under-representation of young male adults in cemeteries, possibly because of young males dying away from the home locale and their bodies not being recovered for burial. Some cranial trephination is observed. Most burials are simple single inhumations, with a north-south orientation; the body faces east. Cremations are rare. Males are often buried on their left and females on their right sides.

142European Early Bronze Age

Economy

Subsistence. The subsistence system became increasingly domesticated during the Early Bronze Age. There was a pronounced shift in favor of domestic plants and animals, and there was increasingly complex exploitation of domestic animals. The result was an intensification in the nature of subsistence. This process began during the Eneolithic but is most apparent by the Early Brone Age.

Wild Foods. Wild animals and plants represent a minor, but still significant component of the food species at most sites. The most common animals include red and roe deer, aurochs, and wild pig. In the lowlands, fish are an important component of the wild fauna. The decrease in wild fauna is probably attributable to continued forest clearance by humans, increased human population, and more extensive reliance on domestic animals.

Domestic Foods. The major domestic animals include sheep, goat, cattle, pig, dog, and horse. With the exception of dog, they were exploited for both primary (meat, hide, and bone) and secondary products (traction, milk and wool). Traction is suggested by carts and double ox burials in central Europe, whereas an emphasis on milk and wool production is attested to by changes in the ages at which cattle, sheep, and goats are being slaughtered and the emphasis on ceramic spindle whorls and new cup, jug, and sieve forms. New breeds and species of domestic animals appear (wooly sheep, and horses) in the region. The shift in subsistence toward greater diversification is reflected by changes in land use, from a reliance on the rich alluvial soils along the edges of rivers, streams, and lakes (during the Neolithic) to a wider range of locations, including most major environmental zones-from highlands to lowlands, from dry loess terraces to swamps. During the preceding Eneolithic and the Early Bronze Age, the high altitude mountain (subalpine and alpine zones) are colonized to control pastures and other resources. The implication is that there was more of an emphasis on pastoralism and transhumance, with potentially greater numbers of domestic animals being herded to

produce primary and secondary products. Hence, the origins of the historic European mixed farming system lie in this period. Horse bones constitute for the first time a regular but small percentage of the domestic fauna. Bone artifacts, often elaborately decorated, believed to be cheekpieces for horse bits, appear as well, making it probable that horse riding began in the Early Bronze Age. Horses and their equipment were probably associated with high-status members of the community.

The same types of crops are exploited as during the Neolithic. Wheat (einkorn and emmer) and barley (twoand six-row) are the most common. Barley cultivation may have increased during the Bronze Age in most of eastern and central Europe, although this is somewhat in dispute. There is a greater variability in crop types than in previous periods, although they are of lesser importance (e.g., bread wheat, rye, field pea, lentils). Wild plants do not seem to have been very important in the diet. The appearance of a plethora of drinking vessel forms has been associated with the emergence of mead as a social beverage.

These subsistence innovations led to radical changes in agricultural strategy-more intensive cereal agriculture and increased stock raising. The integration of plant agriculture with the use of the plow and wheeled transport led to greater productivity in cultivation and the ability of small-scale farmers to clear and cultivate a larger area. More extensive clearances made the landscape more suitable for sheep rearing and associated wool production. A larger cleared area would have been necessary for the pasturing of larger number of animals, which had to be maintained for traction and milking. Larger numbers of domestic animals would have discouraged forest regeneration. The result was an expanding agricultural system.

Industrial Arts

Metal tools become common during this period (see below). Stone tools continue to dwindle in importance. Based on the number of stone tools, they seem to disappear almost completely by this period. However, cut-mark studies on animal bones show that stone tools continue to persist in high frequencies in commoner sites, whereas they are much less frequent in the sites of elites. The most common stone tools are small blades. Most flaked stone tools were probably used for cutting grasses or reeds, although there were other uses. Evidence from cut marks on animal bones indicates that stone remains an important part of the butchering technology in small commoner sites, whereas metalcutting implements begin to become common in elite sites. Wood, reed, and other raw materials are used for tools and containers, as evident from the remains of

Swiss lakeside dwellings.

Several new technologies revolutionized society. Wheeled vehicles appear in the region during the Eneolithic. By the Early Bronze Age, they are employed extensively and change the nature of food production and trade (more can be moved over larger distance by fewer people). The plow also appears in the Eneolithic

but is extensively incorporated into subsistence during the EBA. The evidence for plowing comes not from the objects themselves but from the discovery of plow marks preserved under burial mounds, from Britain in the west to Poland in the east, and dated to the later 4th and early 3rd millennium B.c.

Weaving of wool becomes important. Early domestic sheep did not bear wool, and the earliest textiles of prehistoric Europe were made of flax. Beginning in the Eneolithic and continuing during the Early Bronze Age, wool replaced flax as the primary cloth for textiles. There is a new emphasis on ceramic spindle whorls; wooly sheep figurines appear; changes in sheep-culling patterns indicate a shift toward secondary products exploitation; and a change from linen to wool is apparent in the Swiss upland lakeside villages.

The extensive use of liquids, such as milk and mead, is attested to by a continuation of the Eneolithic pattern of an emphasis on cups, jugs, and ceramic sieves. These new forms are clearly designed for the drinking and pouring of liquids. Biconical beakers, oneand twohandled cups, and pitchers become important elements of the ceramic assemblage. During the preceding Neolithic and Eneolithic, the various style zones (known locally as cultures) covered very large geographic areas. During the Early Bronze Age, a greater variety of geographically localized cultures appeared for the first time, and the geographic range of the local cultures dramatically shrank. For example, there are at least six defined regional cultures in the borders of modern Hungary (Maros, late Zok, Hatvan, Nagyrev, Pitvaros, Bell Beaker), plus those in the surrounding countries. The pottery from each culture became more distinctive in terms of its stylistic elements. This is probably a result of changes in interaction between communities associated with the increasing human population density and the rise of small-scale chiefdoms.

The number of metal finds is relatively few at the beginning of the Early Bronze Age, and they are largely made of copper. Metal artifacts increase in frequencies toward the end of the Early Bronze Age. Early in the Early Bronze Age, bronze tools begin to be produced. Copper, silver, and gold continue to be found. Most finds are in graves, although hoards begin to appear. Molds for the manufacture of metal objects begin to disappear with the invention of the lost-wax technique. Metal types include weapons (swords, daggers, adze and battle-ax, flat ax, spear), ornaments (pins), and sheet metal ornaments. Local sources of metal are exploited or in the case of the alluvial lowlands, imported. Only a relatively small proportion of metal types appears to be utilitarian. The rest was of social rather than practical significance.

European Early Bronze Age 143

Ornaments. Ornaments were made from bone, metal, land snail, freshand saltwater mollusk, and faience. Metal ornaments are often made of sheet metal. Ornaments were clearly gender related. Men's accessories included metal torques with recurved terminals, while women wore necklaces strung from small bronze tubes, snail and other shell, and faience.

Trade. The technology of moving goods changes with the spread of the cart, horse, and boats. Local trade increases in intensity, but appears to decrease in spatial extent. The shrinking regional style zones (or cultures) are indicative of the decreasing extent of local interaction zones. By the beginning of the 4th millennium, the large style horizons of the earlier periods have broken into many smaller and distinct major zones. In the Early Bronze Age, this trend continues. Exchange in perishable goods (e.g., food, furs, and salt) was probably of a localized nature. It, however, does not leave archaeological traces. The bulk transport of agricultural foods (except salt because of its low bulk) over any distance is unlikely because of transport difficulties (even with carts or boats). However, the expansion of settlement into zones that were agriculturally less stable (e.g., highlands) would have created a complementarity in the management of domestic animal and animal byproducts. Individual communities, therefore, could have reduced their vulnerability to the risk of agricultural failure by transhumance. Satellite communities linked by kinship but located in a different environment formed the framework of mutual subsistence support at times of localized disaster. Such a system of intercommunity relationships would have been especially important at this time because the expansion of settlement into more agriculturally marginal environments increased the potential for failure. Long-distance trade increases in its spatial extent. Goods included hard stone (flint), shells of Mediterranean origins, metal artifacts (copper, bronze, gold), faience beads, and amber (by the end of the Early Bronze Age) which are exchanged over hundreds of kilometers from their sources. It is likely that fine pottery would also have been exchanged, but source characterization work remains to be done.

Division of Labor. There is no evidence for full-time specialists in the production and exchange of goods. Raw materials were extracted and goods were produced probably by part-time specialists, who were also employed in subsistence activities. Many commodities were probably produced during the cold part of the year when agricultural pursuits were less demanding. It is likely that the emerging status differences created a division oflabor,

144European Early Bronze Age

with the elites becoming more removed from commodity production. Probably this period saw the emergence of new gender differences in production, which became the basis for historic Europe. Men are more clearly associated with warfare, pastoralism, and other pursuits that take them away from the homestead. Weapons and tools associated with warfare, plow agriculture, and hunting are linked to males, both symbolically and in grave goods. Fingerprints on pottery appear to indicate that women were decorating (if not making) pottery.

Differential Access or Control of Resources. Goods moved both vertically and horizontally in and between societies. They moved in and between villages, tribes, and regions. Low-valued goods would have been available to all, whereas high-valued goods may have been exchanged only between elite. During this period, different settlements and regions begin to specialize in producing certain raw materials and finished products for exchange. The elite had greater access to high-status goods, such as the various metals and other nonlocal materials. Elites also begin to position themselves on the landscape to control access to different resources, such as pasture in the highlands.

Sociopolitical Organization

Social Organization. Communities were small, but there is a strong emphasis on symbolic expression of status. It is likely that local communities were exogamous, given their small size. There are status differences in genders, as attested by differential treatment during burial. Some men clearly have greater access to scarce and valuable resources than others. It has been suggested that rank and status were inherited patrilineally. The same can be said for women, some of whom are buried with indicators of high status (metal jewelry), which has been interpreted as a result of marriage. Status differences also exist between genders. Men tend to be buried with more highly valued goods than women.

Political Organization. Prior to this period, there is some evidence for the emergence oflow-level social hierarchies. During the Early Bronze Age, some burials with much more elaborate grave goods than others appear, both in communal cemeteries and in separate spatial locations. Many of these have very sophisticated grave goods made of bronze, copper, and gold and nonlocal goods obtained through long-distance exchange. This suggests a substantial indigenous demand for luxury artifacts. In contrast, most burials have only a few (or no) goods made from only local materials. The existence of a two-

level settlement hierarchy and differentiation among burials suggests the appearance of low-level (1-2 tier) hierarchical societies. In the surrounding hill country, there appears to be more complexity than in the lowlands of Pannonia. Often there is one fortified settlement dominating each valley system. Hierarchical social distinctions are not always visible in every local village community. They are mostly clearly visible in the cemeteries, which divide between the haves and have nots. Cemeteries appeared to be shared by several villages (local communities) across a microregion. All of the above implies that higher status individuals were not found in each village.

Social Control. Regions and local commullihes were controlled by means of violence, allegiance to lineages or other social groupings, and other features characteristic of low-level hierarchical societies.

Conflict. Fortified sites become common throughout the region. There is usually at least one in each microregion, surrounded by several smaller unfortified sites. The prevalence of such sites is suggestive of endemic local raiding. They would have been places of refuge for the surrounding population in times of danger, which were permanently occupied and defended by local leaders. Competition, in the form of endemic raiding, likely existed between local hierarchical groups. The association of males with weapons may suggest the emergence of a warrior ethos.

Religion and Expressive Culture

Religious Beliefs. The evidence for ritual beliefs is sparse. A few shrines, temples, or areas for worship, based on their intricate plan and altars, have been found. Mortuary activity appears to be a domain for acting out religious beliefs. Major differences in social rank are expressed through differences in handling, manipulation, and mortuary ritual. The relative rarity of ritually associated artifacts emphasizing images of females has been interpreted as a shift in the role of women in religion and society. A male-oriented ideology and male deities are hypothesized to become more powerful during this period. Female figurines have been interpreted as survivals of the earlier fertility cults, whereas the appearance of male figurines is often interpreted as the appearance of male deities.

Religious Practitioners. There is no evidence for specialized religious practitioners, although they likely existed.

Ceremonies. A number of ceramic forms are often interpreted as having a ritual function. For example, askoid (bird in the round) and footed vessels with elaborate plastic and other decoration have been interpreted as being used as rhyta.

Arts. New art forms emerge. Sexual elements are no longer exclusively used to emphasize symbols of fertility and fecundity (as in the Neolithic). Art also extends into the realm of social status and specific functions in corporate groups through the decoration of garments and ornaments. A general characteristic is the representation of a single figure. Both statuary in the round (human and animal sculptures) and two-dimensional representations (incised or low-relief figures) are small (4-5 cm). Anthropomorphic figurines tend to be simplified with only slight indications of anatomical detail. Violin-shaped figurines with featureless heads and bodies with stumpy arms, the askos (representations of the bird in the round), and miniature figurines of domestic (horse, pig, sheep, dog) and wild animals (boar, bear) are widespread. Motifs used to decorate ceramics, figurines, sculpture (embroidered dress, jewelry, long hair of figures) generally are abstract geometric expressions.

Death and Afterlife. Burials are mostly individual inhumations, although multiple burials are not uncommon. Both the range and quality of goods dramatically increase and are found with higher status individuals. Mortuary rituals are modified to express the new-found status hierarchies in society (see above).

Suggested Readings

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Bankoff, H. Arthur, Dusan Krstic, and Frederick Winter (1988). "Arheoloska rekognosiranja u okolini Smederevske Palanke" (Ar-

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Barker, Graeme 1985. Prehistoric Farming in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Garasanin, Milutin (1973). "Praistorija na Tlu SR Srbije. 2d ed. Belgrade: Srbska Knjuzevna Zadruga.

Garasanin, Milutin (1983). "The Bronze Age in the Central Balkans." In The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 3, part I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 163-186.

Gimbutas, Marija (1965). "Bronze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe. The Hague: Mouton.

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SUBTRADITIONS

Bubanj -Hum III Culture

TIME PERIOD: c. 2700-2000 b.c. (calibrated radiocarbon dates). Equivalent to Reinecke's Bronze Al phase.

LOCATION: The Bubanj-Hum culture is centered around the confluence of the western, southern and lower Morava rivers in Serbia, and extends into neighboring areas of eastern, southern, and central Serbia. (Relevant information from the neighboring Slatina and BeloticBela Crkva cultures are included The Slatina culture is centered to the north, in the region of the ower Morava and its tributaries, and extends into eastern and central Serbia (central and east Serbia). The Belotic-Bela Crkva culture is found in western Serbia and is extensively known for its mortuary assemblages (which are still poorly known in the Bubanj-Hum III culture).

DIAGNOSTIC MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES:

Ceramics: Characteristic ceramics vessels are twohandled globular vessels with a polished surface without slip. The cultures retains the bowl and vessels with widened rim shapes of the previous periods (BubanjHum II). Diagnostic ceramic forms include two-handled cups and pitchers, handle-less biconical vessels, and a variety of forms for holding liquids (globular vessels). Coarse ceramics outnumber fine ceramics by far. Coarse

ceramics are poorly fired, while fine ceramics were fired at high temperatures. Coarse ceramics will have thick walls, made of poorly cleaned soils, and contain large fragments of stone in the temper. The color ranges from grey to brown, the surface tends to be unsmoothed. In contrast, the clay of fine ceramics is well-cleaned and include mica and sand, the colour varies from greyish black and grey to brown. Fine ceramics are frequently decorated with plastic bands, impressions or incisions arranged in various patterns, or a series of holes along the rim. The characteristic ornamentation is incised patterns with pricks arranged in angular bands, crosses and correspondingly similar motifs.

Other: A wide range of bone and antlers from both wild and domestic animal were used as tools (e.g. hammers, awls, needles, and wedges) and ornaments (e.g. pins, beads and pendants). Some are highly decorated (cheek pieces for horse bridles). Beads and pendants were made from bone and stone. Stone tools are rare and tend to be made from a variety of raw materials (most of which are locally available). Common types are ground stone axes and truncated chipped stone blades or bladelets (that often have sickle gloss and/or heavily denticulated working edges, and are very heavily worn). Because of the absence of graves from the culture area, metal artifacts are rare. When found, they are made from both copper and bronze. In neighboring cultures, metal objects include tools (flat and shaft hole axes, triangular daggers, and small awls) and body and clothing ornaments (neck rings, roll-headed and "cypriot" arched pins, spiral arm rings, and a variety of finger and hair rings, pendants, plaques, disks, and beads). Gold artifacts usually include hair and finger rings, gold wire, and plaques (probably sewn onto clothes).

IMPORTANT SITES: Bubanj, Gornja Toponica, Humskacuka (Nis), Gornje, Skopsko Kale, Vitkovca (near Aleksinac), Vitosevac, VreCine, and Vrtiste (near cesme).

CULTURAL SUMMARY

Environment

The Bubanj-Hum culture lies within an area that encompasses the broad alluvial river valleys and surrounding highlands of the Morava River and its tributaries in central and southern Serbia. There is a great deal of topographic variation in this area, ranging from 100--500 m a.s.l. The Morava river drains a vast area south of the Danube. The river system has, historically, been the route of easiest access between

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central Europe and all points to the south and east (e.g. Athens, Sofia, Istanbul, etc.). In the south, the various tributaries flow through narrow gorges and steep defiles in very mountainous countryside. North of Nis, the Western and the Southern Morava converge to form the Lower Morava which empties into the Danube. The river plain of the Lower Morava is extremely wide (over 16 km) and flat, although the river itself sluggishly meanders within a restricted zone (3-4 km wide). Several broad flat terraces are carved along the edges of the surrounding uplands. The gradient and velocity of the river are very low. Flooded areas are common within the meander belt. Throughout the rest of the river plain, it is relatively dry. The river valley is bordered by hilly or mountainous country and forms an obvious route through the length of Serbia. In its upper and middle courses, and those of its southern tributaries, the Morava flows through a series of small basins which are connected by sharp defiles and gorges.

Throughout the area, groups of rocks protrude through and above the soft Tertiary mantle of limestone, sandstone and shale. These older and more resistant rocks, often containing mineral rich deposits, stand up as hills above the rest.

The region has a southern temperate climate with features similar to those of central Europe. However, it does retain features of the more arid Mediterranean climatic zone to the south. The farther north from the Dinaric mountain divide, the more it resembles the Central European climatic regime. Climatic variability is largely a function of altitude and proximity to the two neighboring climatic regions. In general, winters are very cold and summers are hot. The climate is continental and rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, with an annual average of 600 mm. This is sufficient for dry-farming, in conjunction with the water-retentive soil. The highest precipitation is during the summer (June) and the lowest during the winter (February). It has an annual average temperature of 11- 12° and 2100 hours of sunshine. In the late fall and early winter (November), snow begins to fall and may last until March. The average temperature in January is 0-- 2S and in July it is 20--25°. Summer highs range up to 42 degrees centigrade and winter lows to c. -26 degrees centigrade (-17 degrees F.). The average temperature for the growing season is 18-19°. The open plains allow snow accumulations to be easily blown away by the winds, while snow easily accumulates in the surrounding forested and hilly environments. Even fast flowing streams and rivers may freeze. Snow arrives and remains for a longer period of time in the mountains (late April/ early May) than in the plains (early March).

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The plant community falls within the central European biotic region. There is usually an eight and a half month growing season (between the last and first frosts of the year) - from the middle of March through November. Pollen diagrams from surrounding regions indicate that the environment was probably much the same in the Bronze Age as at present, barring modern deforestation. Typical Central European types of deciduous forests (i.e. thick mixed oak forest) and grasslands, each of which contain a rich diversity of plant and animal life, characterize the region. Beneath 1000 m, there is a thick mixed oak forest. A beech forest zone begins at about 1000 m. (a.s.l.). The leafy branches of the beech forests were favored fodder for horses, sheep and cattle. At about 2300 m, the coniferous forests begin to appear. Above them, at 5000-6200 m. (a.s.l.), lie the high mountain brushwood and grasslands. There is a rich variety of terrestrial and aquatic resources.

Settlement Patterns

Settlement location. Most sites are found on the terraces above the rivers or streams cutting through the area. They are all situated for easy access to water and protection from floods. Settlement was often linearly distributed on terraces parallel to the river course or clustered isolated areas that rose above the surrounding seasonally flooded or marshy countryside. Some of the sites are located overlooking steep bluffs, thereby providing some measure of natural defense.

Settlement type. There appears to be two types of sites:

(l) small villages separated by 5-10 km; and (2) separate cemetery sites. Cemetery sites are poorly known, and largely by analogy to the neighbouring cultures. The settlements are small farming villages « 100 people) dotting the landscape inhabited by closely-related families, pursuing a diversified subsistence strategy, including small scale craft production, plough agriculture, and diversified pastoralism. There does not seem to be any clear evidence for a settlement hierarchy in this period, although one emerges by the Middle Bronze Age. Settlements are small and occupation areas appeared to have largely been composed of periodically shifting foci. As structures were destroyed or abandoned, new structures were built and occupied a short distance away. As time passed, the focus of settlement shifted up and down stream, leaving a wide swath (up to 200 meters wide) of cultural debris.

Structures. Structures were mostly constructed of inconsequential wattle-and-daub materials. Houses tend

to be small and rectangular, with earthen or prepared clay floors, wattle and daub walls, and roofs of matted or woven reeds. Based on their size, the structures were probably occupied by nuclear or small extended family. There is little evidence of functional differences between houses within settlements, since the nature and distribution of artifacts does not vary dramatically. There is some suggestion that the larger pits on some sites were semi-subterranean dwellings.

Economy

Environment. The river valleys form a natural corridor through this otherwise mountainous terrain. This is the corridor through which movement and trade occurred. The lowlands of the flood plain are frequently flooded and contain numerous and widespread marshes. They would have been less productive areas for agriculture, but exploited seasonally for a variety of subsistence and craft (e.g. reeds) resources. Driers areas were farther back from the river systems along the terraces overlooking the river flood plain and tributary streams. The drier terraces contained lighter weight soils and were of higher agricultural productivity. This is where the majority of sites are located.

Subsistence. Wild animals and plants represent a minor, and almost insignificant component of the food species at most sites. The most common animals include red and roe deer, aurochs, and wild pigs, but they usually represent only a few percentage points of the entire assemblage. Only the sites near the major rivers contain any fish, and usually only a small quantity. The major domestic animals include sheep, goat (combined sheep/goat is ca. 30%), cattle (40%), pigs (25%), dogs ( < 1%), and horses ( < 1%). With the exception of dog, they were exploited for both primary (meat, hide, bone) and secondary products (traction, milk and wool). Plough agriculture and the cart are probably prevalent, although there is no local evidence yet. Crops are also hoed, based on the presence of red deer antler hoes. Low risk crops, such as wheat (emmer) and barley (two-and six-row), are the most common domestic plants. These are especially suitable for the wet and unpredictable environment of the region. A greater variability in crop types appear (in sites from surrounding cultures) than in previous periods, although they are of lesser importance (e.g. bread wheat, rye, field pea, lentils). Wild plants do not seem to have been very important in the diet. There is an abundance of storage and drinking vessel forms. Based on the distribution of vessels, storage probably took place within each household.

Technology. Metal artifacts are poorly known and most evidence for metal finds comes from graves in surrounding contemporary cultures with extensive cemeteries (e.g. Beloti_-Bela Crkva). For a description of metal technology, see entry under Maros culture. Stone almost completely disappears by this period and the most common types are ground stone axes and small chipped stone blades (with sickle sheen), most of which were probably used for cutting grasses or reeds. Cut marks on animal bones indicate that stone remains an important part of the butchering technology. Wood, reed and other raw materials are used for tools and containers. There is an abundance of 100m weights and ceramic spindle whorls, and there are changes in sheep culling patterns that indicate a shift toward secondary products exploitation. All of the above indicates that wool has become an important source of cloth and weaving. There is extensive use of liquids, such as milk and mead, as attested to by an emphasis on ceramic forms clearly designed for the drinking and pouring of liquids (cups, jugs, and ceramic sieves). Biconical beakers, one-and two-handled cups, and pitchers are important elements of the ceramic assemblage. Ornaments were made from bone, metal, and land snail. The technology of moving goods probably includes the cart and boats, although there is no local evidence.

Sociopolitical Organization

There is little information on sociopolitical organization that is not based upon mortuary analysis data from surrounding cultures (e.g. Belotic-Bela Crkva). For a description of sociopolitical organisation that probably pertains to the Bubanj-Hum culture, see entry under Maros culture. Inhumation is the characteristic burial form. Mortuary rituals are modified to express the newfound status hierarchies in society. Major differences in social rank are expressed through differences in handling, manipulation, and mortuary ritual. Burials are mostly individual inhumations, although multiple burials are not uncommon. Occasionally, burials are in mounds. These tend to be individuals with greater quantities and higher quality of burial goods implying higher status.

Religion and Expressive Culture

The evidence for ritual beliefs is again best derived from the mortuary remains from neighbouring cultures (e.g. Belotic-Bela Crkva and Maros cultures). For a descrip-

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tion of religion and expressive culture in Bubanj-Hum culture, see entry under Maros culture.

The relative rarity of artifacts emphasizing images of females and abundance of male figures has been interpreted as a shift toward a male-oriented ideology. Male deities are hypothesed to become more powerful. Female figurines has been interpreted as a survivals of the earlier fertility cults. There is no evidence for specialised religious practitioners. Art extends into the realm of social status and specific functions within corporate groups through the decoration of garments and ornaments. A general motif is the representation of a single figure. Zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines tend to be small and simplified with only slight indications of anatomical detail. Motifs used to decorate ceramics, figurines, sculpture (embroidered dress, the jewellery, long hair of figures, etc.) are generally abstract geometric expressions.