Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 4, Europe

In West Transcaucasus, which from three sides is protected from atmospheric influences by mountains and is open to the Black sea side only, a humid subtropical climate has developed since the Tertiary period. The Caucasus ridge is an important climatedividing structure. It hampers the spread of cold air masses to the south and warm air masses to the north, and in the winter it creates a sharp climatic contrast between the North and South Caucasus. According to recent data, the mean January temperature in the North Caucasus is _2° C; in West Transcaucasia (Kolkhida lowlands) the mean January temperature is +4° C. In the summertime, the temperature contrast between these two regions is minimal (Maruashvili 1969). The West Transcaucasian lowlands were not influenced significantly by the early Holocene climatic changes, although there were noticeable zone changes in the forest cover of mountains and foothills when the forests descended for some hundred meters as compared with the recent level (Kvavadze 1990). At the end of the Boreal and beginning of the Atlantic periods, in the very warm and humid climate conditions, all the forest belts moved up to the mountains. Fir and beech forests were distributed 300 m higher than today (Kvavadze and Rukhadze 1989). The overall climate of the period was mild, with snowy winters and hot humid summers.

The relief of the West Caucasus is mountainous and runs steeply from the highlands to sea level and is covered with an abundant hydrographic web, the rivers of which in the downstream are characterized by slow flow. The swamps and relic lakes are numerous here. The West Transcaucasian low hydrometric belt is characterized by two soil-geographic complexesmarshy pedalfers and red and yellow soils; on foothills and mountains, humus-carbonate soils are widely distributed (Maruashvili 1969). Beech, hornbeam, chestnut, oak, and alder forests were widely distributed, accompanied by hazelnut, cornel, bilberry, and rhododendron undergrowth. Riverside and seaside portions of the land were marshy. Fruit-bearing species of plants were common in the forests and included fig, apple, pear, a variety of plums, cherry, walnut, mulberry, and others. Wild grapes were present as well (Gogitidze 1977; Kvavadze and Rukhadze 1989). The West Caucasian forests held deer, wild goat, brown bear, wild cat, raccoon, muskrat, wild boar, chamois, ferret, beaver, and other game animals. The fauna of this period are known primarily from the Darkveti site and the Kamenomostkaya cave data, because only these sites provided osteological material (Bendukidze 1979; Formozov 1965). Terrestrial and water birds were present here as well: ducks, pochards, pheasants, partridges. The

Caucasian Neolithic 61

rivers and sea shores were rich in fish (Bendukidze

1979).

Settlements

Odishi type (subtradition) settlements, found in West Transcaucasia, are of the open air type-no cave settlements have been found (Nebieridze 1991). The only exception is the Kamenomostkaya cave in Northwest Caucasus, where the upper Paleolithic layer is covered by a 20-30 cm Neolithic level (Formozov 1965). The majority of the cultural layers of these open-air settlements are disturbed; hence, there are no data concerning the living structures. In some of them (Kistrik settlement), light wooden structures of wattle-and-daub type could be suggested, with stone hearths in the center (Solov'ev 1967). The suggestion has been made that lenslike intrusions in the pebble stone layer of Nizhniaya Shilovka, filled with cultural remains, may indicate a semisubterranean structures (Solov'ev 1967). According to the initial excavator of the site, this notion is hardly credible (Formozov, 1962,1965). Indeed, the use of subterranean structures in the humid climate of West Transcaucasia is improbable. The majority of the openair settlements are small, which should house a family group. The site spread on the larger territories is sparse: Kistrik covered an area of 6 ha (Lukin 1950), where a relatively higher concentration of the population should be suggested; however, there is a notion that the spreading of the settlement on the larger area could be due to frequent displacement of dwellings. The same reason may be true for the unilayer character of the settlements (Bzhania 1996).

Economy

There are few data on Odishi-type sites' industrial activities. However, it could be suggested that along with specialized plant collection, fishing, and hunting, some forms of food production did develop. In the Kamenomostkaya cave, the bones of domestic ani- mals-cow, goat or sheep, pig, and dog-were found (Formozov 1965). The presence of querns and muliers, sickle blades/reaping knife blades, as well as hoelike tools and axelike macroliths may serve as an indirect proof of food production. Likewise, farming could be verified by the presence of charred cereals (not identified) in the industrial pit of Kistriki settlement (Solov'ev 1967). In Kistriki and Makhvilauri (Southwest Georgia, at the Turkey border) a number of sinkers-pebbles with two-sided grooves-were found, which may reflect specialized fishing.

62 Caucasian Neolithic

The primary utensils used by the Odishians were (I) handmade, simple-shaped ceramics, baked to a red color; (2) chipped-stone tools, based mainly on the local flint or imported obsidian; (3) ground and polishedstone tools. The ceramics, distributed at Odishi circle sites, have a flat bottom, simple shape, thick walls, are weakly and evenly baked to red or gray-pink color, have no handles, and are represented by fragments only. The clay was tempered by inorganic fillings-grit or ground quartz. Ground mica is a frequent addition, which could be easily noticed on the surface of the pottery. The pottery found in central Kolkhida settlements (Odishi, Anaseuli II, Guriantha) is characterized by perpendicular or oblique incisions on the lip, serrated rims, and impressions on the rim edge. Sometimes the ceramics have a wavy rim that looks crinkled when viewed from the top; at other times with a crinkled look when viewed from the side. The same ceramics often have incised fishbone-like (or branch-like) decoration. Relief impressions are very rare. Ceramics of northwestern (Kistrik, Lower Shilovka) and southern (Makhvilauri) sites are entirely devoid of ornaments--{;eramics of these settlements are absolutely plain, with smoother surface and round mouth. The distribution of undecorated ceramics in the north and south parts of Kolkhida rules out its regionality and should be attributed rather to the chronological moment. Moreover, the only bowllike vessel found in the North Caucasus, in the Kamenomostkaya cave, was ornamented with incised lines.

In the chipped-stone materials, as compared with the earlier aceramic Neolithic sites, the percent of obsidian utensils decreases significantly and never exceeds 15 percent even in the Southwest Georgian sites (Anaseuli II, Makhvilauri). Obsidian was introduced here from the South Georgian Paravani lake region. The majority of the cores are of cone or prism shape and were intended for blade production. Most of the tools, hence, are based on parallel-sided blades; however, in the overall mass, the number of flakes exceeds the number of blades. Among the tools, burins are the most common, then come scrapers, (both end scrapers and side scrapers), drills, denticulated and notched blades, and backed blades. Arrowheads are represented as singular exempIes. These sites are characterized by geometric shaped microlithic tools-trapezoids, lunates, and high rectangles whose upper sides are squared. For example, out of 8,342 pieces of chipped stone from Anaseuli II, flakes number 6,260, blades number 1,240, burins number 147, and scrapers number 66. In this collection, there are 92 trapezoids, 76 lunates, and 40 "back-scraped" high rectangles (Nebieridze 1972). It should be noted that the high rectangles with squamous retouch are one of the

characteristic elements of the Odishi type sites. At the same time, macrolithic tools were found abundantly on all sites-round-cutting tools processed by the macrolithic technique, some of which were a picklike hoe and some were projectile (spear head) weapons. On Odishi type sites, numerous polished celts and axes are found, the majority of which are oval in crosssection. Pestles, rubbing stones, hammer stones, and querns and grinding slabs are found as well (Nebieridze 1991).

References

Bendukidze, Oleg G. (1979). (The Fauna of Holocene Vertebrates of Georgia). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Russian, English summary)

Bzhania, Vadim (1996). "Caucasus." In Neolithic of Northern Eurasia Archaeology. Moscow: Nauka, 73-86. (In Russian)

Formozov, Alexander A. (1962). "The Neolithic of Crimea and Black Sea Littoral Coast of Caucasus." In Materials and Researches for Archaeology of the USSR, 102. Moscow: Academy of Sciences Press, 89. (In Russian)

Formozov, Alexander A. (1965). (The Stone Age and Eneolithic of Kuban Basin (Prikubanie». Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian)

Gogitidze, Sergo (1977). (The Neolithic Culture ofSoutheastern Littoral of the Black Sea). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian, Russian summary)

Kvavadze, Eliso V. (1990). "Actuopalinological Aspects of Holocene Biostratigraphy and Paleogeography of the Highland Regions of Transcaucasia." Ph.D. diss. for Doctor of Geology-Mineralogy, Tbilisi. (In Russian)

Kvavadze, Eliso, and Luara Rukhadze (1989). (Vegetation and Climate of the Holocene in Abkhazia). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Russian, English summary)

Lukin, Alexander L. (1950). "Neolithic Settlement Kistrik, near Gudauta." In Sovetskaia Arkheologiia 12: 247-286. (In Russian)

Maruashvili, Levan (1969). (Physical Geography of Georgia). Tbilisi: Tbilisi University Press. (In Georgian)

Nebieridze, Lamara D. (1972). (The Neolithic of Western Transcaucasia). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian, Russian summary)

Nebieridze, Lamara D. (1986). (Early Stages of Development of Early Farming Gulture of Western Transcaucasia). Tbilisi: Metsniereba.

1986 (In Georgian, Russian summary)

Nebieridze, Lamara D. (1991). (Neolithic). In Archaeology of Georgia, 1: Stone Age. Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 226-261. (In Georgian)

Solov'ev Lev N. (1969). "Neolithic Settlements of Caucasian Littoral of the Black Sea: Nizhneshilovskaya and Kistrik." In Materials for Archaeology of Abkhazia. Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 3-34. (In Russian)

Paluri

TIME PERIOD: 8500-7600 B.P.

LOCATION: The foothills and mountains of western Georgi, the northwestern part of eastern Georgia to the south of the Central Caucasus, and the territories east of the Black sea.

DIAGNOSTIC MATERIAL ATIRIBUTES: The chipped flint-stone

industry has abundant flakes and comparatively few blades. Burins and side scrapers are common, as are hooked or curve-shaped tools.

CULTURAL SUMMARY

Environment

Georgia, as a part of Caucasia, is a typically mountainous country, which determines its landscape, soil, and climatic diversity. Because of deeply indented relief, the landscapes are characterized by well-defined vertical stratification (Maruashvili 1969). The climate alteration of the early Holocene did not significantly influence the West Georgian valley; however, foothill and mountain forests show tangible zonal changes (Kvavadze 1990). The climate of the Boreal period was cold and humid in the mountains and moderately cold and relatively dry in lower regions. At the end of the Boreal and at the beginning of the Atlantic, a warmer and more humid climate came into existence, and all the plant belts moved upward. In the foothills, mixed deciduous forests, with hornbeam, beech, maple, lime, were distributed. The forests were rich in fruit-bearing plants such as wild apple, wild pear, wild sour plum, walnut, hazelnut (Kvavadze and Rukhadze 1989). Relatively cold winters and less humid, hot summers were found in the northwest part of East Georgia, with an expansion of forest plants dominated by hornbeam and oak (Kvavadze 1990). Out of the diversity of animals present the following should be emphasized: deer, roe deer, chamois, wild boar, bear, wildcat, ferret, raccoon, muskrat, beaver, and aurochs. The rivers and the Black sea coast were rich in fish (Bendukidze 1979).

Settlements

The aceramic Neolithic Paluri subtradition sites are represented by open settlements only. These settlements are situated in the foothill belt (Paluri) of West Georgia or in the highlands, at 1,500-1,800 m above sea level (Lebikvi, Nakuraleshi, Bugnari, Beshumi) (Grigolia 1974, 1977), and in the foothills and mountains of East Georgia, at about 1,000 m above sea level (Nagutni I, Nagutni II, Zura-Akho, and Jijoeti) (Kalandadze 1952; Lyubin 1966). In none of them except Paluri has an untouched cultural level been found. According to the location of pits of 20-25 em, in both diameter and depth, dug in the clay soil, which served as a foundation for roof supporting posts, the existence of square hut or

Caucasian Neolithic 63

framework buildings of 4--4.2 m long and 2.5-3 m wide could be suggested (Grigolia 1977).

Economy

On the Paluri-type aceramie Neolithic sites, neither osteological nor paleobotanical data are available. Therefore, discussion of the industries can be carried out only by indirect data. The data on the foothills and mountains show an existence of a specialized gathering and hunting tradition; farming and cattle breeding had only a subordinate role. Grigolia refers to it as mountain culture-Mountain Neolithic-and considers that the major activity was specialized fishing. One piece of evidence that supports this idea is the finding of stone sinkers/plummets. The author indicates also that this culture is characterized by hooked template-like tools, which could serve for cutting cereals-first of all of the millet family: millet, sorghum, oats (Grigolia 1977).

Primary utensils used by Palurian people were chipped-stone tools. The main raw material for tools was flint. The majority of the cores are amorphous and used for flake production. Some prismatic, cone-shaped, and flat nuclei have been found. The number of flakes, in Paluri, exceeds the number of blades almost 10 times. The majority of the tools are made from flakes. Burins keep the leading role among the tools (Grigolia 1977). The next group is side scrapers, with straight, convex, or concave working sides. The scrapers are made with steep retouching. The retouch is mostly grooved, jetlike, and subparallel, sometimes on the opposite sides, often on the bulging side only (Grigolia 1977; Lyubin 1966). In the next place, numerically, are drills, and end scrapers make the smallest group. Likewise rare are the microlithic technique and geometrical microliths.

Special emphasis should be given to one peculiar tool, which is represented by numerous series and determines a special index of the chipped-stone utensils of Paluri circle sites-these are hooklike or templatelike tools. The main element of this tool is steeply retouched and crescent-shaped bent. There is a large hooked extension, usually at the end of the tool. The steep retouch at the extension seems to have been a major goal of secondary working. These are considered to be tools for bone or wood processing and reaping knives as well (Grigolia 1977). These tools, according to the retouch working and shape, remind us of blades (tools) with steep, parallel retouched blunted extensions, distributed in some sites of Southwest Asian Pre-Pottery Neolithic (Cayonu//Chaionu-Tepe, Tell Shimshara, Tell Magzalia).

Only in Paluri were found ground-stone tools, among which are the elongated-oval pestle-hammer

64Caucasian Neolithic

stones with rubbed-out heads and ends, querns and mulIers (upper and lower stones of hand grinders), mortars, ground polishers with two polished grooves, also ground-stone balls-sling stones and net sinkers (oval pebbles with specially scratched out round grooves). Of special interest are chopping tools made of pebbles, the cutting edges of which, produced by slantwise cut, were additionally straightened by shaving. It should be mentioned that at the Paluri-type sites no ground-polished-stone celts and chisels were found so far; however, the polishing technique was familiar to them. This is verified by the so-called shoemakers' type knives, made of longitudinally sharpened elongated pebbles, in which one side-the handle-is naturally, or by artificial grinding, made round, while the cutting edge is sharpened by grinding-polishing (Grigolia 1977).

References

Bendukidze, Oleg G. (1979). (The Fauna of the Holocene Vertebrates of Georgia). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Russian, English summary)

Grigolia, Guram K. (1974). (Stone Age Open-Air Sites in Kolkheti).

Materials for Archaeology of Georgia and Caucasus, 6. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian, Russian summary)

Grigolia, Guram K. (1977). (Neolithic of Central Kolkheti: Paluri).

Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian, Russian summary) Kalandadze, Alexander (1952). "South Ossetian Archaeological Ex-

pedition, 1952." In Proceedings of Conference of l. lavakhishvili Institute of History, Dedicated to 1952 Archaeological Excavation Results. Tbilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences, 8-10.

Kvavadze, Eliso (1990). "Actuopalinological Aspects of Holocene Biostratigraphy and Paleogeography of the Highland Regions of Transcaucasia." Ph.D. diss. Geology-Mineralogy, Tbilisi. (In Russian)

Kvavadze, Eliso, and Luara Rukhadze (1989). (Vegetation and Climate of the Holocene in Abkhazia). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian, English summary)

Lyubin, Vasilii P. (1966). "The First Information About Mesolithic of Mountain Part of Caucasus." In Materials and Investigations of Archeology of USSR, 126, Moscow-Leningrad; Nauka, 155-163. (In Russian)

Maruashvili, Levan (1969). (Physical Geography of Georgia). Tbilisi:

Tbilisi University Press. (In Georgian)

SUBTRADITION

Shulaveri (Shulaveri

Shomutepe)

TIME PERIOD: 8000-6500 B.P.

LOCATION: Eastern Transcaucasia in the valley of the Mtkvari (Kura) and Araxes rivers, south to Kura, which covers the riverside valleys of Southeast Georgia and

Azerbaijan, and the intermountain depression of the mid-Araxes, which covers the Ararat valley in Armenia and the Araxes-side depressions of Nakhichevan.

DIAGNOSTIC MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES: The handmade crude

ceramics, some of which, in the earlier stages of the subtradition, are adorned with incised and relief decoration, and at the later stages with relief decoration only. The chipped-stone industry is based on the blade technique, with an abundance of burins and scrapers. There is also a variety and abundance of bone and antler implements. Mud brick circular architecture is present.

CULTURAL SUMMARY

Environment

Palynological data and the results of modern and fossilized soil investigations have shown that Shulaveri culture times were characterized by a climate that did not differ significantly from the one observed currently (Narimanov 1987). As exemplified by the Kverno Kartli (Lower Kartli), semiarid conditions, existing presently, persisted here in the early Holocene as well (Janelidze 1984). Analysis of the pollen sampled on the Imiris Gora has shown that this region was an arid grassland (Javakhishvili 1974). Analysis of the pollen sampled in the vicinity of Arukhlo has shown that in the early and beginning of the mid-Holocene an open arid landscape, with light forest fragments, dominated here. The foothills were covered with oak and hornbeam forests, while the river-side depressions were occupied by backwater forests (Gogichaishvili 1984). Today the East Transcaucasian climate is an arid continental subtropic, with typically continental properties. The average yearly temperature varies between 9-14° C. The winter is mild; however, from December until mid-February, the temperature frequently drops below 0° C. The snow in the valley is unstable. The summer is hot; maximal temperature is recorded between 39-42° C. Winds are frequent. The volume of atmospheric precipitations is 270500 mm (Maruashvili 1981).

The Shulaverian sites are distributed on the agriculturally fertile alluvial riverside depressions. On the valleys of eastern Transcaucasia, gray, chesnut, and other soils, characteristic of the dry climate, are found (Maruashvili 1981). In the Kura river backwater, in the hunting reservations, deer, wild boars, and pheasants are living even today (Maruashvili 1970). In the early Holocene, the dry and warm climate fauna was spread

in the valleys and foothills and included animals such as kulan (a variety of wild horse), jeiran (wild goat), striped hyena, wild sheep, gerbil, and hedgehog, among others (lanelidze 1984). In the Kura river and its tributaries, fish were abundant-Caspian lamprey, Caspian salmon, sheat fish, wild carp, gudgeon, bleak, Caspian shamaya, and river gobius (Maruashvili 1970; Vekua 1984). In the volcanic mountains of South Caucasia (Caucasus Minor), obsidian deposits are abundant. Flint outcrops are found over the whole Caucasus. Copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, and other mineral deposits are represented as well (Maruashvili 1981).

Settlement Patterns

All settlements of the Shulaveri culture represent multilayer artificial hills of the tepe-tell type, which emerged as a result of long-lasting dwelling on the same site. The group of settlements mostly consisted of two to five villages (lavakhishvili 1973). The majority of the settlements covered less than 1 ha of area; however, some of them, such as Khramis Didi Gora in the Kverno Kartli, were fairly large and covered about 4-5 ha (Kiguradze 1986a). It is probable that the larger settlements served a central leading role in the group. In these central settlements, presumably several thousand individuals lived; in the smaller settlements, some dozen to some hundreds. During centuries of living in the same place, the villages underwent territorial alterations-they grew in width as well as in height. As a result of frequent demolishing and rebuilding of the houses, interchangeable building layers and respective cultural-chronologi- cal layers evolved. Nine such horizons are found at Shulavris Gora and Khramis Didi Gora; seven horizons are found at Imiris Gora and Arukhlo I.

According to the stratigraphy of these sites, five consecutive stages are recorded in the Shulaveri culture. The earliest stage is verified at Shulavris Gora only. The upper horizons of Shulavris Gora are synchronous with the two lower horizons of Imiris Gora; the upper horizons of the latter are synchronous with the lower horizons of the Khramis Didi Gora (Kiguradze 1976). Despite the comments of some investigators, this periodization scheme is the only one at present (Kushnarieva 1993). The earliest stages of the culture are determined for Kvemo Kartli (Kiguradze 1986a). At all five development stages of the Shulavery culture, architecture and masonry are almost unchanged (lavakhishvili 1973; Kiguradze 1976). Circular or oval buildings were constructed with mud bricks made of clay with straw tempering and laid in a single row. The buildings narrowed from the basement upward making a dome

However, in Imiris Gora, Khramis Didi Gora, and in the Karabakh valley, the Chalagan Tepe excavations have revealed single examples of cylindrical buildings, which probably had different roofs resting on the pillars. The mud bricks used in constructions had flat bottoms and bulging tops (hog brick) and different sizes: at the earliest settlement of Shulavris Gora, the mud-brick dimensions were 25-50 cm in length, 15-25 cm in width, and 7-9 cm thick. These were laid at a 5 cm interval. At Imiris Gora 35, 40, or 50 cm long, 15 or 20 cm wide, and 8-10 cm thick bricks were found (Javakhishvili 1973). At the more recent Khramis Didi Gora the "standard" 40-42 x 20 x 7 cm mud bricks were found, although the

On the sites of Western Azerbaijan-Shomu-Tepe, Thoira-Tepe, and Gargalar-Tepesi-the length of mud bricks was 25-50 cm, width 15-25 cm, and thickness 7- 9 cm (Narimanov 1987). One living and two or three circular household buildings were interconnected by mud-brick arched walls, which bordered one courtyard. The living buildings were, at an average, 3 m in diameter, maximum 4.5 m; The household buildings were smaller-1.5-2 m. All the walls of the buildings as well as of the bordering fences were coated, on both sides, with straw-tempered clay 2-3 cm thick.

According to the data on Imiris Gora and Arukhlo, the above living and household complexes surrounded a circular central space (Gogelia 1979; lavakhishvili 1973). At Khramis Didi Gora, several such spaces are suggested (Kiguradze 1986a). The streets or intercomplex roads in the sites of this culture were not determined. Occasionally an entrance to such a site, where the openings in the fences are made, could be seen. The latter are sometimes, fortified by transverse brick pilasters. These are found mostly at Khramis Didi Gora (Kiguradze and Dilbarian 1983). The entrance to the building was a 60 by 50 cm trapezoid manhole, which was left in the wall, over the floor level. At the early settlements at Shulavris Gora, the dwellings were dense and haphazard; at the later sites, they were more organized. The main household activities were carried on in the counts. The open fires, hand grinders, stone mortars, as well as other in-house findings, are found in the counts (Djavakhichvili and Kiguradze 1984).

Economy

66Caucasian Neolithic

agriculture and stock ansmg (Kiguradze 1976). For living, they chose agriculturally fertile depressions, mostly in the valleys of medium and small rivers. It could be suggested that by means of primitive irrigation systems, they watered their crops (Lisitsyna and Prishchepenko 1977). Judging by the K vemo Kartli and western Azerbaijani sites, sites were located close to foothills and mountains where the stock could be pastured in the summertime. Ten species of wheat were cultivated here: Triticum monococcum L., T. dicoceum Shrank, T. durum Dest., T. turgidum, T. spelta L., T. aestivum, T. compactum Host., T. sphaerococeum, and endemic varieties-T. maeha Dek. et Men. speltoid and T. carthlicum Nov. Remains of some barley varieties were found-Hordeum distichum L., H. pollidum Ser., H. lagunculiformes Bacht., Hordeum L. Some wild barley

(H. spontaneum C. koch.) was found as well. In addition, oats (Avena sativa L.), rye (Secale cereale L.), millet (Panicum sativum L.), sorgum (Setaria italiea/Panicum italicum L.), lens (Lens eseulenta L.), common pea

(Pisum sativum L.), and bean (Vicia L.) were cultivated. At Shulavris Gora, Dangreuli Gora, Khramis Didi Gora, and Shome-Tepe, the seeds of cultivated vine (Vitis vinifera L.) were found (Kiguradze 1986b; Lisitsyna and Prishchepenko 1977; Narimanov 1987). In the household pit of Dangreuli Gora, melon (Cucumis melo L.) seeds were found, which were never found in the early Caucasian and Near East sites (Kiguradze 1986b). Existence of sorrel (Rumex crispus L.), amaranthus (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), chenopidium (Chenopodium album L.), and flat onopordon (Onopordon aeatium L.), traditionally edible herbs, were determined for Dangreuli Gora as well as Imiris Gora and Arukhlo I. These herbs are widely used in modern Georgian cuisine.

A remarkable trait of the agricultural center of the Shulavery culture, and respectively of Transcaucasia, is an abundance and diversity of wheat and the barley varieties. A number of the fanning weeds and other wild species have been found. According to paleobotanists, such a wide assortment of cultivated plants points to a long-lasting prehistory of their cultivation, and suggests that domestication began locally. Botanical data prove that wide distribution of soft wheat (T. aestivum L.) in the early cultures of Transcaucasia points to its local origin, because in the Transcaucasian phytocenoses the species still exists and was utilized in the selection of soft wheat (Lisitsyna 1984; Lisitsyna and Prishchepenko 1977). Likewise interesting is a wide distribution of the millet in the Shulaveri culture, which suggests the spread of its cultivation in Transcaucasia and elsewhere from this very locality (Kiguradze 1986b). Findings of cultivated vine seeds at several settlements suggest that

Transcaucasia is the one (if not the sole) center of the cultivated vine (Kiguradze 1998).

At the first stages of the Shulaveri culture development, all domestic animals characteristic of the following stages are found-goats, sheep, cow, pigs all seem to be domesticated since earliest times. At the very first stages, domesticated dogs bones are found. Hunting and fishing had an auxiliary role only. This notion is verified by scarce (less than 10 percent) osteological material in the archaeological record. Of the domestic animals found at the settlements, first are the bones of small ungulates (goat and sheep), then come the large ungulates (cow), and last are the swine, although at some settlements pigs make up 25 percent of domestic animals (Narimanov 1987; Vekua 1984). In game, the following are found: deer (Cervus elaphus maral Ogilby), wild goat

(Capreolus eapreolus L.), wild boar (Sus serofa), wild sheep (Ovis ophion Blyth.), auroch/buffalo (Bison bonasus Boj.), wild horse (Equus caballus L.), kulan (Equus hemionus Pall.), hare (Lepus europaeus Pall.), fox (Vulpes vulpes L.), jackal (Canis aureus L.), gazelle (Gazella subgulturosa Guld.), bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus Erxl.), raccoon (Meles meles L.), wolf (Canis lupus L.), turtle (Testudo graeca ibera Pall.), 13 species of land and waterbirds. Among the fishbones are found gobio

(Gobio perea), roach (Rutilus sp.), barbel (Barbus cyri), pike (Esox sp.), and a number of sturgeon (Acipenceridae) species (Bendukidze 1979; Vekua 1984).

The primary utensils used by Shulaverians were (l) handmade simple clay pottery; (2) a variety of obsidian and flint chipped tools; (3) ground-stone and polishedstone tools; and (4) a variety of bone and antler tools. The crude handmade clay ceramics are of local origin. The walls of the pottery are of uneven thickness, and hence the surface is covered with lumps. These ceramics are weakly baked; the color is uneven and varies between yellowish-brown to dark hazel. The inorganic tempering (grog or grit) was added to the clay. All the ceramics are flat-bottomed. At the early stages, heeled bottoms are found as well. On the base of the ceramics a spiral-shaped imprint is frequently found. These ceramics, which dominated the early stage, existed till the end of the culture. The coexistence of relief and incised decoration is characteristic of the early stage. During the second stage, incised decoration disappears, and a variety of relief decorations emerges. At the third and following stages, reddish-brown and light pink baked ceramics are found. Addition of chopped straw into the vessel walls is quite frequent. Straw-tempered ceramics are more characteristic of the Southeast Transcaucasian settlements. Ceramic shapes are simple-mostly con- stricted-mouth jars are found; straight-mouthed (with

vertical neck) or slightly profiled mouthed pottery is rarer. At the earlier stages, mostly medium-size jars or pots are encountered. At the later stages, larger jars and small pots appear. Bowls and plates are practically unknown. Rarely, smoothed and polished ceramics are found, the surface of which is plain. Under the rims of these ceramics, single or several rows of knobs are recorded, also almond-like, sinuous, snakelike ornaments, fishbonelike faces, circles, semicircles, horseshoe patterns, groups of semicircle-bordered bunches of grapes made of knobs. Rarely are anthropomorphic decorations encountered except for single zoomorphic patterns. Painted pottery is not characteristic of this culture, although at same sites single fragments of painted pottery are found.

On all the sites, abundant chipped-stone articles are encountered: at Shulavris Gora over 3000 items were collected; at Imiris Gora over 7,000, at Khramis Didi Gora 15,000. Among chipped-stone items, obsidian is the predominant material: at Imiris Gora they were 92 percent, at Shulavris Gora 89 percent, at Khramis Didi Gora over 80 percent. At the sites of the middle Kura river (South Georgia, western Azerbaijan), an absolute majority of obsidian is imported from the Chikiani mines, near Paravani lake (South Georgia). Obsidian was introduced from this mine even to the Karabakh valley. For the southern zones of Transcaucasia several mines were used simultaneously, mostly Kelbajari and Atisi (Badalyan et al. 1998). The volume of flint and flintlike rocks, of argilyth and basalt, in the chippedstone industry never exceeded 20 percent. Over the whole territory of the culture, a uniform stone industry was distributed, characterized by thoroughly prepared large conical cores, from which wide and long parallelsided macroblades were struck. Occasionally smaller bulletlike cores are encountered. The majority of tools are made on blades. Among the tools, burins dominate, then scrapers, engravers, piece ecailJees, drills, knives, and the like. Notched blades are characteristic, and denticulated blades are in abundance as well. According to use-wear analysis, some of the blades were used as the cutting parts of reaping tools. Similarly, at later stages, elongated flint and argilyth flakes were widely used in sickles. These sickle blades were attached to bone, horn, or wooden sockets with bitumen.

Macrolithic tools are rare. The majority was found at Khramis Didi Gora, and these are mostly polished tool blanks. Also rare are double-sided crude chopping tools. Querns and grinding slabs are found in abundance, as well as various palettes, mortars and pestles, hammer stones, digging-stick weights, grooved stones, rubbing stones. Sometimes small cuplike cutlery, with

Caucasian Neolithic 67

crudely polished inner surfaces, was found. At most sites, the abundance of sling stones is noteworthy, while chipped-stone arrowheads are practically absent. Fairly numerous are polished-stone tools, the majority of which are double-edged, wedge-shaped celts. Chisels of a similar shape are found as well. Knifelike tools are also rarely found. At almost all sites are found single, wellpolished, thoroughly crafted mace heads (Arazova 1974; Djavakhichvili and Kigouradze 1984; Narimanov 1987).

A special trait of the Shulaveri culture is the abundance and variety of the bone, and antler tools, which are found in the hundreds. The most numerous bone tools are the awls and spatulae made of the small ungulates' metapodia. Needles, spoons, knifelike tools, arrowlike, and comblike items are found as well. A smaller part of the bone items is adorned with incised ornaments. Special diversity is found in different largesized mattocks made of large ungulates' tubular bones and shoulder blades, distributed at the later stages. Diversity and thorough handicraft are characteristic of the deer antler items, among which mattocks, picks, and hammerlike or other shapes of rod/batons are found. The majority of the latter are well polished and sometimes adorned with relief or incised ornaments (Kiguradze 1986a; Korobkova 1979; Narimanov 1987). At Khramis Didi Gora pendants made of cattle teeth and cornelian tearlike beads are encountered, which are of local manufacture (Menabde et al. 1980).

In the burials in the lower layer of Nakhichevan Qiul-Tepe I and in the burials of the Karabakh valley Chalagan-Tepe, bone, mother-of-pearl, black and white stone, sardonyx, turquoise, and copper beads have been found. The turquoise and probably the copper beads may be imported here (Narimanov 1987). At Nakhichevan Qiul-Tepe, some other copper items were found as well. Single smaller copper items such as beads were found in the middle of the Kura river, at Khramis Didi Gora (Kiguradze 1986a), and at Gargalar-Tepesi (Narimanov 1987). In the lower layers of Nakhichevan QiulTepe I, obviously imported painted Halaf pottery was found (one intact, and two fragments), which may point to interchange or trading relations with southern centers (Mesopotamia, Eastern Anatolia) (Munchaev 1975). Standardization of the chipped-stone material and the high level of the bone and antler processing, on the one hand, and the existence of special "shops" for obsidian processing, at Imiris Gora, and of the bone tools, at Thoira-Tepe, on the other hand, suggest the existence of artisan dwellings nearby and indicate the emergence of specialized craftsmanship (lavakhishvili 1973; Narimanov 1987).

68 Caucasian Neolithic

Sociopolitical Organization

The main economic unit was the nuclear family, which itself produced all the vitally necessary goods. Small settlements, presumably, represented a kin village; at the "central" settlements, several families or kin groups lived together and had a more complex tribal organization. The discovery of well-polished stone maceheads and antler batons adorned with incised or relief decoration, the number of which at single settlements was very little, should point to a certain leadership role for individuals who possessed the mace as a distinctive trait or insignia.

Religion and Expressive Culture

The Shulaverian tribes' beliefs and conceptions were, in a way, well-established and canonized. The small figurines, tens of which were found at Khramis Didi Gora, and single exemples at the other sites as well, almost always represented a woman and might belong to a fertility and reproduction cult. The existence of different types of these sculptures (Glonti et al. 1973; Kiguradze 1986a), could point to a kind of pantheon. The resemblance of these sculptures, in size, general posture, modeling of head and face, and other properties, to those of the Hassuna-Halaf groups, suggests a uniform or common ideology among the early agricultural tribes of Southwest Asia and the Caucasus. At Khramis Didi Gora, a special ritual has been verified centering on large unbaked vessels, which, at their bottom, were surrounded by a similar sets of items-antler baton, bone or antler mattock, polished stone axe or its blank, obsidian or flint blades, or sickle filings. With these vessels, which presumably were used as a cereal container, most of the figurines are connected. At Imiris Gora and Khramis Didi Gora are found two-compartment buildings, which perhaps are shrines. The suggestion that these should be shrines is supported by the fact that in the Imiris Gora shrine an altar was found, while at Khramis Didi Gora stationary pottery and five sculptures were found (Javakhishvili 1973; Menabde et al. 1978).

Belief in life after death is verified by burials with the dead of various tools, found at Arunlo I, ChalaganTepe, and Nakhichevan Qiul-Tepe excavations. In these burials, signs of red ocher are documented as well (Gogelia and Chelidze 1992; Narimanov 1987).

References

Arazova, Roza B. (1974). "Chalcolithic Age Stone Implements from Azerbaijan." Ph.D. diss. for Candidate of Historical Sciences, Baku. (In Russian)

Badalyan, Ruben C, lames Blackman, Zaal K. Kikodze, and Philip Koll (1998). "Caucasian obsidian." In Proceedings of Conference of Caucasian Archaeology. Tbilisi, 57-58. (In Russian)

Bendukidze, Oleg G. (1979). (The Fauna of the Holocene Vertebrates of Georgia). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian Russian summary)

Glonti, Lili, Alexander lavakhishvili, and Tamaz Kiguradze, (1973). "Anthromomorphic Figurines from Khramis Didi Gora." In Dzeglis Megobari, 33. Tbilisi; Sabchota Sakartvelo 5-16, 97-98. (In Georgian Russian summary)

Gogelia, David D. (1979). "Settlement features of Arukhlo I." In

Materials for Archaeology of Georgia and Caucasus, 7. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian, Russian summary)

Gogelia, David D., and Lydia M. Chelidze (1992). "Eneolithic." In Archaeology ofGeorgia, 2. Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 17-69. (In Georgian)

Gogichaishvili, Liana K. (1984). "Vegetation of Holocene in the Lowland and Footheel of Kvemo-Kartli." In Human and Its Environment. Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 11-15. (In Russian)

lavakhishvili, Alexander I. (1973). (The Building Work and Architecture of the Settlements of South Caucasus in V-III c. B.C.). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Russian)

lavakhishvili. Alexander I. (1974). "The Results of Kvemo-Kartli Archaeology Expedition [1970-1971]." In Archaeological Expeditions of the Georgian State Museum, 3. Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 28-39. (In Russian and Georgian)

Djavakhichvili, Alexander, and Tamaz Kigouradze (1984). "Premiers Agriculteurs de L 'Europe." Histoire et Archeologie, 88, 24--31. (In French)

Janelidze, Chichiko P. (1984). "On the Reconstruction of Environment of Early Farming Culture of Eastern Georgia." In Human and Its Environment. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Russian)

Kiguradze, Tamaz (1976). (Periodization of Early Farming Cultures of Eastern Transcaucasian). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian, Russian summary)

Kiguradze, Tamaz (1986). (Neolithische Siedlungen von Kvemo-Kartli, Georgien). Munich: AVA-Materials, Band 29.

Kiguradze, Tamaz (1986). "On the Emergence of Food-Producing Economy in Georgia." Bulletin of Georgian State Museum, 38 B: 3554. (In Georgian Russian summary)

Kiguradze, Tamaz (1998). "Transition from Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age in Eastern Transcaucasus." In Proceedings of Conference of Caucasian Archaeology. Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 19-20, 77-78. (In Georgian Russian summary)

Kiguradze, Tamaz, and Marina Dilbarian (1983). (New data on planning principles of the South Caucasian Early Agricultural Settlements) Tbilisi: Metsniereba.

Korobkova, Galina F. (1979). "Ancient Tools for Soil Processing from Arukhlo I." In Materials for Archaeology of Georgia and Caucasus,

7. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Russian)

Kushnareva, Karine Kh. (1993). South Caucasus IX-II c. B.C.: Stages of Cultural and Social-Economic evolution). Saint Petersburg: (In Russian)

Lisitsyna, Gorislava N. (1984). (Problems of Emergence of FoodProducing Economy in the Near East According to the Latest Paleoethnobotanical Investigations." In Short Communications ofthe Institute of Archaeology 180: 63-71. Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian)

Lisitsyna, Gorislava N., and Ludmila Prishchepenko V. (1977)

(Paleoethnobotanical remains' finds of Caucasus and Near East).

Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian)

Maruashvili, Levan l. (1970). (Physical Geography of Georgia). Tbilisi: Tbilisi University Press. (In Georgian)

Maruashvili, Levan J. (1981). (Physical Geography of Caucasus, part 2). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian)

Menabde, Medea, Tamaz Kiguradze, and Kalistrate Gotsadze (1980). "The Results of Kvemo-Kartli Archaeological Expedition in 1978~

1979." In Archaeological Expeditions of the Georgian State Museum,

7. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian, Russian summary) Menabde, Medea, Tamaz Kiguradze, and Zaal Kikodze (1978). "The

Results of Kvemo-Kartli Archaeological Expedition in 1976-1977." In Archaeological Expeditions of the Georgian State Museum, 6.

Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Georgian Russian summary)

Munchaev, Rauf M. (1975). (The Caucasus on the Rise of Bronze Age).

Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian)

Narimanov, Ideal H. (1987) (The Earliest Culture of Farming and Stockbreeding Population of Azerbaijan). Baku: Elm. (In Russian)

Vekua, Abessalom K. (1984). "The Fauna of Eastern Georgia in Chalcolithic Time According to the Materials of Arukhlo I Settlement." In Human and Its Environment. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. (In Russian)

SITES

Anaseuli I ("Meteosadguri")

TIME PERIOD: c. 8500-7800 B.P.

LOCATION: Southwest Georgia, 2.5 km Southwest from Ozurgeti city.

DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARY

Local Environment

Anaseuli I is located 160 m above sea level, on a hilly strip, characterized by humid subtropical climate with 1,700-2,000 mm of annual precipitation, an average yearly temperature of 13-14.4° C, and well-developed red soils and abundant vegetation (Maruashvili 1970).

Physical Features

The site was located on the central hill of Anaseuli, where today a meteorological station is built. The site evidently occupied the whole ridge of the hill. As a result of construction and agricultural (plowing) work, an immovable cultural layer has not been determined. The layers are located as follows: under the lO-cm-thick humus, at the depth of 0.1--0.5 m, brownish clay with humus admixture is located, below which, at 0.5-1.0 m, a layer of brownish-red clay is found. Archaeological material continues to the 50-cm depth (Nebieridze 1970). According to the fragments of plaster and ashcoal layers, existence of wattle-and-daub or framework huts could be suggested (Japaridze 1989).

Caucasian Neolithic 69

Cultural Aspects

Anaseuli I is one of the earliest Neolithic sites in West Transcaucasia. Unlike Anaseuli II, where a variety of ceramic fragments were found, Anaseuli I belongs in the aceramic or pre-pottery Neolithic. The major findings are chipped stone material-over 4,000 units, while groundand polished-stone articles number just 59 units. Obsidian served as the major material (over 73 percent) for the tools (Nebieridze 1970), which originated from the Chikiani mines (at Paravani lake, South Georgia), situated 200 km from the site (Badalyan et al. 1998). In the chipped-stone material, cone and bulletlike cores are found. Although flakes and splinters, a large number of which are of flint, significantly exceed the blades, most of the tools are made of blades. The most numerous tools are burins and scrapers, and there are many retouched blades. Geometric microliths are not characteristic-only about 10 trapezes were found. Polished celts and chisels, stone hoes, rubbing stones, and grooved stones (polishers) were found as well (Nebieridze 1970).

References

Badalyan, Ruben S., James Blackman, Zaal K. Kikodze, and Fillin Kol. (1998). "Caucasian Obsidian." In Archaeological Conference of Caucasus. Short Communications. Tbilisi: Nekeri, Publishers, 1998, 57~58. (In Russian)

Japaridze, Otar M. (1989). (On the Rise of Ethnocultural History of Caucasus). Tbilisi: Tbilisi University Press. (In Russian)

Maruashvili, Levan. (1970). (Physical Geography of Georgia, part 2). Tbilisi; Tbilisi University Press. (In Georgian)

Nebieridze, Lamara. (1970). (The Neolithic of Western Transcaucasia).

Tbilisi; Metsniereba. (In Georgian, Russian summary)

Chokh

TIME PERIOD: c. 7300-7100 B.P.

LOCATION: Central part of mountainous Dagestan, on the Turchidagi plateau, near the Chokh village, Gunibi district.

DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARY

Local Environment

The Chokh site is situated on the terrace of the Bakdakudi river, at 1,725 m above sea level. Analysis of

70Caucasian Neolithic

the hearth coal has shown that unlike the present time, in the Neolithic heat-loving trees flourished here-oak, hornbeam, ash, maple, and bush plants. Today even conifers are scarce here except for deciduous plants. Such a flora in this region should correspond to the beginning of Holocene or rather to its optimum (Amirkhanov 1987). At the same time, it must correspond to the New Caspian Transgression (Gadjiev 1991).

Physical Features

Following the excavations made in the 1950s, it was suggested that on the Chokh site only Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic layers were present (Kotovich 1964). Excavations made in the late 1970s and early 1980s have shown that the layers, which were considered as Upper Paleolithic, actually were Mesolithic, while those assigned to Mesolithic belong in Neolithic, on the top of which an additional Bronze Age layer was isolated (Amirkhanov 1987; Kushnareva 1993). In the Neolithic layer, a large stone building of oval shape was excavated (Abakarov and Davudov 1993). This building had a corridorlike entrance and main living space separated by an arching wall. The wall was 50 cm thick. The living space was more than 60 sq m. In the center of the building, an open hearth was located (Gadjiev 1991).

Cultural Aspects

On the Chokh site, cohabitation of two large families has been suggested (considering the two buildings), with a population of 50 individuals. The stone industry of Chokh is a continuation of the local Mesolithic tradition, and the stone buildings create a basis for the further spread of stone architecture in this region. The chipped-stone material consists of several thousand units, which represent mostly light gray semitransparent flint. Only a small fraction of the flint pieces are secondarily processed. Although prismatic, conic, and bulletlike cores seem to be prepared for blade production, the number of blades is significantly fewer than that of the flakes. Most numerous among the tools are scrap- ers-round and short scrapers being prevailing over the other kinds of scrapers. The drills are amorphous and typologically poor. Only single exemples of the piece eqai/lce are found, whereas knives and hole punchers are encountered. Noteworthy are the Chokh type pointed tools, which are characteristic of the Mesolithic layer as well-one side is cut out by retouching, while the base is thinned by flat retouching. Of geometrical microliths, high trapezes and elongated triangulars have been found. The latter are linked with the Mesolithic tradi-

tion (Amirkhanov 1987). Many blades, microblades, and flakes are partially retouched. In the Neolithic layer, a reaping knife sheath made of shale stone, adorned with incised ornament, has been found (Gadjiev 1991; Kotovich 1964). Ground stone is represented by grinders, pestles, rubbing stones, and hammer stones (Amirkhanov 1987). In the Neolithic Chokh, 10 units of bone tools and I of antler have been found. Out of these, four are awls made of split tubular bone, three are knives also made of split bone, one is a plate with a central hole, one is a reaping knife or sickle-sheath blank, one is a fragment of reed pipe (flute)-like instrument.

About 1,000 pottery fragments have been found in the Neolithic layer. Out of these, only two were reconstructed. One is a truncated cone-shaped bowl, the other a hole-mouth jar. The bottoms of the pottery are flat and heeled. Both the inside and outside of the pottery are smoothed. The majority of the fragments are 0.7 cm thick; the clay has a coarse sandor ground ceramic (fire-clay) admixture. Organic admixture was not found. These ceramics are not characterized by ornaments. Just two examples were found-one has a couple of knobs, and the other has an incised bolster (Amirkhanov 1987; Gadjiev 1991). The Chokh population were engaged in farming and stock raising; they cultivated single-grain, double-grain, and soft-dwarf wheat, two species of barley, oats (Arena sp.), and millet. The seeds of cultivated vine (Vilis vinifera L.) were found as well (Amirkhanov 1987), which may have been brought here from the plains. Along with game animals, the bones of domestic goats, sheep, and, presumably, cattle, were found (Gadjiev 1991).

References

Abakarov, Ali I., and M. Omar Davudov (1993). (Archaeological Map of Dagestan). Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian)

Amirkhanov, Khizri A. (1987). (The Chokh Settlement man and His culture). Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian, English summary)

Gadjiev, Mahomed G. (1991). (Early Farming Culture of Northeast Caucasus). Moscow: Nauka. (In Russian)

Kotovich, Vladimir G. (1964). (The Stone Age of Dagestan). MakhachKala: Academy Press. (In Russian)

Kushnareva, Karine Kh. (1993). (South Caucasus in IX-II mill. B.C.). Saint-Petersburg. Academy press, (In Russian)

Khramis Didi Gora

TIME PERIOD: c. 7700-7300 B.P.

LOCATION: Southeast Georgia, downstream of the Krami river, on the Marneuli plain.