Index
A1+ 178, 193
Abbas I, the Great, Shah 47 Abbasid Caliphate 42–3 Abdulhamid II, Sultan 72, 79, 87, 91 Abdulmejid, Sultan 69
Abeghian, Manouk 51
Abrahamian, Ashot 51
Achaemenian empire 3, 25, 31, 34, 35, 38 Adalian, Rouben P. 127, 132
Adana 86, 87, 108, 139
Adjarian, Hrachia 51 administrative structure 196, 204 Adontz, Nikoghos 51 Adrianople, Treaty of (1829) 66 Aghtamar, Catholicate 75
agriculture 23, 25, 33, 100, 117, 170, 197, 199, 201
Aharonian, Avetis 95, 103, 106, 108 Akhalkalak (Javakhk) 66, 104, 105, 236 Akhaltskha 66, 105
Akinian, Nerses 50, 51 Alans 25
Albania and Albanians 49, 53, 58–9; language 27
Alexander the Great 35 Alexandropol see Gyumri Alexandropol, Treaty of (1920) 110 Ali Pasha 77
Alik (Wave) 182
Aliyev, Heidar 163–4, 177 Aliyev, Ilham 164
Allied powers, World War I see European powers; United States
ALMA Museum 135
Almaty (Alma-Ata) Declaration (1992) 171
alphabet 4, 39, 51–2, 57–9 Amasya, Treaty of (1555) 47 Amatuni, Haik 118
Amida 36 Anahit 35, 36
Anak Surün Pahlaw 39
Ananian, Poghos 50, 51
Anatolia 25, 27, 28, 34, 35, 36, 46, 66, 69, 93, 110, 113, 133
Anatolian civilizations 23, 25, 27, 30, 36 Andropov, Yuri 121
Ani 33, 43, 46, 54 Ankara province 79
ANM 122–4, 168, 173, 174, 184, 233–7 Antelias, Catholicate 118, 129, 134 Antioch 36, 53
Antiochus of Commagene 35
Antitaurus (mountains) 23, 89 Aprahamian, Sima 134–5 Aq-Quyunlu Turkoman dynasty 46 Ara ge¢ec‘ik (the Beautiful) 29 Arab conquest 4, 42–3, 53–4 Aramaic 36, 39
Aramazd 35
Ararat (Mount) 1, 9, 23, 31, 35, 36, 89, 91, 110, 111
Ararat (newspaper) 181
Ararat (region) 23, 27, 30, 35, 97, 200 archaeology 26
architecture 4, 133
Ardahan 66, 96, 100, 104, 105, 119 Ardaw‰n V 38
ARF see Armenian Revolutionary Federation
Argentina 139 Argišti I 31
Argos 133
Arhmn 35
Armenakan party 78, 79
Armenia: geography 23–25; historic position between East and West 4, 47–50; key moments in history 4,
50–6; major historical events to 1800s 41–7 (map 44); origins and early history 3, 26–39 (map 37); see also Cilician Armenia; Eastern Armenia; Iran; Ottoman empire; Russian empire; Soviet Armenia; Western Armenia
Armenia-Diaspora Conferences 144, 238 Armenia, Armenian (toponym and
ethnonym) 3, 31 Armenian Assembly 135 Armenian ‘Cause’ 235–6
Armenian Church 3, 33, 42, 45, 49–50, 54, 55, 56, 71, 74–6, 83, 84, 90, 118–19, 240; diaspora 127, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 140, 142; ecumenicity 54, 59–60; rejection of Council of Chalcedon 3, 52–3; see also Constantinople, Patriarchate
Armenian Forum 144
Armenian General Benevolent Union 103, 135
Armenian International Women’s Association 135
Armenian language, see language Armenian Messianism 62–3 Armenian National Assembly
(Constantinople) 75, 77
Armenian National Assembly (Republic 1991–) 169, 176, 179
Armenian National Council 95–6, 98 Armenian Pan-National Movement see
ANM
Armenian Question 7, 11, 12, 60, 76–82, 107, 111, 235–6, 238
Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF, Dashnaktsutiun) 8, 78–9, 80–1, 84, 85, 86, 87, 91, 95, 101–2, 103, 106, 115, 128, 129, 131, 134, 141, 153, 169, 174, 177, 179; homelanddiaspora relations 230–8, 240, 242; media 182, 187, 188, 192; suspension by Ter Petrosian 172, 173, 188, 233–4
Armenian Youth Federation (AYF) 141, 145
Armenianness 12, 13, 21, 22, 131, 143, 241; see also national identity
Armeno-Tatar war (1905–7) 83–4, 90 Arsacid (Aršakuni) dynasty 33, 38, 39,
41–2 Artashes IV 58 Artawazd 36
Artaxata (Artašat) 35, 38
Index 245
Artaxiad dynasty 33, 36 Artaxias I (Artašüs) 30, 33, 35, 36 Article 19 193
arts 4, 10, 33–4, 83, 120, 130, 133, 134 Artsruni family 43
Arzašku (Ar‹üš) 31
Ashjian, Mesrop, Archbishop 50 Assad, Hafez 134
assimilation, diaspora 143, 145, 243 Association of Independent Media 191 Assyria 31
Astuac (God) 30 Astyages 34
Atatürk, see Kemal, Mustafa (Atatürk) Australasia 139, 142
Austria 180
authoritarianism 21, 170, 173, 188 Avakian, A. 144
Avarayr, battle of (451) 51, 56 Azatamart (Struggle for Freedom) 182 A¿dahak 34
Azdarar (The Herald) 180
Azerbaijan 2, 14, 43, 66, 75, 84, 85, 196, 207; diaspora 90, 138, 143; homeland-diaspora relations 235; independence (1918–22) 98, 104, 105, 106, 109; independence (1990s) 166, 167, 173; Karabagh conflict see Mountainous Karabagh; relations with Republic (1991–) 15, 19, 171, 174, 176, 186 (see also economic blockades); Soviet 94, 102, 105, 111, 113, 115, 123, 124, 150, 151,
Azg 187, 189 Aznavour, Charles 137
Babgen I of Othmus, Catholicos 52 bag (god) 30
Bagratid (Bagratuni) dynasty 4, 33, 42, 43, 45, 46, 53–4
Bagrewand, battle of (775) 33 Bakalian, Anny 13, 136, 143, 145, 241 Baku 15, 68, 70, 83, 89, 90, 94, 95, 96,
97, 100, 104, 105, 109, 113, 123, 150, 152, 155, 156
Bakunts, Aksel 118 Balian family 61 ballads 36
banking system 204
Batum, Batumi 66, 68, 70, 96, 100, 105, 111
Batum, Treaty of (1918) 98 BBC 194
246 Index
Behistun 31 Beledian, Krikor 242n Biain-ili 31
Bitlis 94, 103, 108, 109
Bogharian, Norayr 51
Boghigian, Apo 237
Bolshevik 8, 9, 34, 94, 95, 96, 102, 106, 109, 110, 114, 115, 183, 216
Borchalu district 65 Borian, Bagrat 111
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918) 96, 97 Brezhnev, Leonid 10, 119, 120, 121 Bucharest, Treaty of (1812) 65 Bulgaria 138
Byzantine Church, Armenian rejection 52–3, 54
Byzantines, Byzantine empire, Byzantium 3, 25, 41–6, 49, 52–4, 57, 127, 131
Canada 126n, 136
capitalism 55, 61, 83, 133, 139; industrial 5
Caucasians and Caucasus 3, 8, 25, 29, 69, 77, 83–4, 148; diaspora 138; see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia; South
Caucasus
Chamchian, Mikayel 50 Charents, Eghishe 118, 229 charities 74, 131 Chaumont, Marie-Louise 50 Cherekjian, Gevork 118 Chernenko, Konstantin 121 Chicherin, Grigorii 109, 111 Chinggis Khan 46 Chkhenkeli, A.I. 96–7
Christianity 23, 28, 34, 46, 70–3, 77; and alphabet 51–2, 57–9; conversion to 3–4, 38–9, 41, 49, 50–1; see also Armenian Church
Cilicia 4, 23, 43, 45, 68, 69, 70, 75, 76, 79, 80, 86, 87, 91, 95, 103, 106, 107, 108, 134, 139
Cilician Armenia 4, 43, 45, 54–5, 69, 70, 76–7, 79, 80, 86, 87, 91, 103, 107, 108, 139
Cimmerians 25
Circassians 68
citizenship 170, 236–7, 238, 239 civil service 204
civil society 9, 17, 179, 211, 212 Clemenceau, Georges 107
climate 23 CNN 194
Cohen, Robin 145
Cold War 13, 21, 119, 129, 134, 213 collective identity see national identity collective memory 2, 4, 22
collective psychology 227–8 commerce see trade and commerce Commonwealth of Independent States
124, 171
communications technology 5 Communist Party 169, 174, 177, 178,
179, 182; see also Soviet Armenia Conference on Security and Co-
operation in Europe see Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
Constantine, Emperor 50 Constantinople 5, 22, 62, 68, 72–81, 86,
87, 89, 92, 95, 127, 133, 180, 181, 182, 197, 239, 240; Patriarchate 53, 55, 69–70, 75, 78, 133
Constitutional Democrats 85–6, 95; see also Ramkavar party
Constitutional Rights Union 184 co-operatives 199, 200–1
copper industry 197 Copts 58
corruption 121, 170, 174, 176, 187, 189, 195, 206, 212, 217, 227
Council of Chalcedon, rejection of 3, 52–3
Council of Europe 172, 175, 178 crafts 33–4, 197
Crimean War 66
criminal activity 215; see also corruption Cudi (Mount) 25
cultural identity 57–9
culture 3, 4, 6, 16, 22, 26, 45, 55–6, 89, 240; diaspora 13, 47, 51–2, 61–2, 76, 131, 133–4, 135, 137, 139, 140, 141–2, 241; Karabagh conflict 151, 152; Soviet Armenia 11, 115, 119, 120, 121; see also veratznund
Culture arménienne 145 currency 9, 54, 101, 186 Cyprus 42
Cyrus II, the Great 34
Darius I, the Great, King 31
Darius III 35
Dashnaktsutiun see Armenian
Revolutionary Federation
David of Sasun 27, 36, 63
Dawtian, Eprem Khan 85
De Lamberterie, Professor 27, 30 Deir ez-Zor 92, 134
Dekmejian, R.H. 134 Demirchian, Karen 175, 176 Demirchian, Stepan 177
democracy 5, 121; media and 17–18, 177–9, 180–95; Republic of Armenia (1918–1920/21) 9; Republic of Armenia (1991–) 17, 178, 202, 236
demographic structure 82, 90, 104, 125, 209, 227
deregulation 169 Diakonoff, Igor 27–8, 31
diaspora 12–14, 61–2, 63, 118, 119, 126–46; citizenship 170, 236–7, 238, 239; contemporary social and institutional life 139–44; Genocide (1915) 7, 8, 16; historical roots 4–5, 46, 47, 126–7; legacy of the Ottoman Empire 127; links and divisions 9, 131–2; major centres 132–9; and media 180–2, 189; and politics 22, 130, 134, 137, 138, 169, 171, 229–40, 241, 242; population 126n; relations with homeland 21–2, 76, 102–3, 108–9, 115, 176, 205n, 229–43; role 237, 242
Digenüs Akritüs 36
discrimination against Armenians: nineteenth and early twentieth century 6, 68–73, 76–88, 90; Mountainous Karabagh 150, 151, 152
Diyarbekir 36, 79, 103
Dro (Drastamat Kanayan) 6, 98, 113 Dro (paramilitary organization) 234 Droshak (Flag) 182
dual citizenship 170, 236–7, 238, 239 Dvin 42, 43
earthquake (1988) 19, 122, 130, 142, 144, 166, 202, 222, 230
Eastern Armenia 5, 9, 22, 41–2, 82–4, 89–91, 113, 131, 180–1, 239
Eastern Europe, diaspora 138, 239 ecology 121
economic blockades: by Azerbaijan and Turkey 15, 19, 156, 159, 166, 176, 186, 202, 206; by Georgia 114
economy and economic life 2, 6, 18–19, 76, 166, 169–70, 176, 186, 196–210,
Index 247
219, 226; homeland-diaspora relations 230, 236, 238; Karabagh conflict 152, 156, 162, 163 (see also economic blockades); policy debate 205–7; Republic of Armenia (1918–1920/21) 100, 101; Soviet Armenia 10, 18–19, 114, 117–18, 122–4, 125, 197–201, 203, 213–15; see also informal economy; socioeconomic status
Edessa 50
education 167, 207–8, 216–21; diaspora 76, 127, 130, 132, 133, 134, 140, 141, 142; Mountainous Karabagh 152; nineteenth and early twentieth century 73–4, 83, 84, 88, 89; Republic of Armenia (1918–1920/21) 9, 101; Soviet Armenia 10, 11, 115, 216
Eghishe 39, 50, 51, 56
Egypt 36, 45, 68, 103, 126, 132 Elar 26
elections 172, 175, 177–9, 189–92, 193, 228, 233
E¢išü see Eghishe
elite, Republic of Armenia (1991–) 171 Elizavetpol 90, 100, 105
emigration 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 47, 66, 68, 120, 130, 168; from Republic of Armenia (1991–) 21, 167, 209–10; see also diaspora; migration; refugees
England, English, see Great Britain Enlightenment 5, 56, 60–1
Enver Pasha 91–2, 94, 109
Epic of Sasun 27, 36, 63 epics 27, 28, 33, 34, 36, 39, 63 Erets, Ghevond (Leontius) 51 Erzerum 94, 96, 103, 108, 109 Erzerum, Treaty of (1823) 66 Erzinjan 96
Etchmiadzin: press 181; See of 54, 55, 75, 118, 129
ethnic cleansing 7–8, 12, 151, 154 ethnic identity 7, 57–9, 132, 239 EU-INTAS project on ‘Conflicts in
Post-Communist Societies’ 154n Euphrates (river) 23, 27, 89, 103 Europe: diaspora 136–9, 141, 142, 143;
see also missionaries
European Institute for the Media 190 European powers 5, 8, 9, 78, 79, 82, 95, 100–9, 111; Armenian hope of
salvation from 7, 62–3, 65, 88, 105–6 European Union 171, 173
248 Index
family 213; diaspora 128–9, 131, 140–1; and migration 226–7
Fein, Helen 91
female emancipation see gender equality femininity 144
feminism 144
First World War 91–109, 128; map 99 Fitzmaurice (diplomat) 81
foreign investment 203, 204, 206–7 France, French 8, 22, 51, 93, 95, 102, 107, 108, 115, 131, 165, 197, 240;
diaspora 126n, 136–7, 226 Franks 45, 49
free market economy 200, 201–2, 204, 205–6, 207, 228, 236
Galkina, Tamara 138 Gallipoli 92
Gamkrelidze, Professor 27–8 Gandzasar 151
Ganja, see Elizavetpol Garitte, Gérard 50 Garsoian, Nina 36 gender equality 9, 61, 101
Genocide (1915) 2, 7–8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15–16, 22, 27, 63, 89, 91–4, 106, 113, 120, 123, 126, 154; diaspora and 9, 12–13, 127–8, 130, 131, 132, 134, 136, 137, 139, 144, 145, 235, 237, 238, 240, 241, 242; media 183; Republic of Armenia (1991-) 170, 171, 174, 175, 176, 213
geography 23–5, 196–7; map 24 Georgia, Georgians 15, 43, 49, 53, 58,
65, 90, 95, 96, 104–5, 110, 114, 173, 178, 196; diaspora 126n, 138, 180–1, 236; independence (1918) 97–8; independence (1990s) 166, 167; Karabagh conflict 159; Soviet 113, 114, 123, 124
Georgian language 28, 31 Germanic languages 30
Germany, Germans 8, 22, 73, 90, 93, 95, 96, 97–8, 100, 106, 107, 118, 240; diaspora 138
Getashen 154
Gevork VI, Catholicos 119 Ghazar (Lazarus) of Parpi 51 Ghukasian, Arkadii 175 glasnost 121, 144, 183–4 globalization 145–6
Gökalp, Zia 91
Golden Horde 46
Golestan, Treaty of (1813) 65
Golos Armenii (Voice of Armenia) 186–7 Gomitas, see Komitas
Gorbachev, Mikhail 10, 121, 122, 124, 147, 153, 200
Gorts (Work) 182 Gosplan 199
Great Britain, British 5, 8, 56, 72, 77, 78, 82, 85, 95, 100, 102, 104, 105, 107, 108; diaspora 137–8
great powers see European powers; United States
Greater Armenia 35, 43, 46, 150, 153 Greece, Greeks 25, 26, 28, 29, 35, 36, 38,
49, 59, 79, 81, 115, 126n, 233 Greek language 27, 30, 35, 39, 51, 57 Gregory of Narek, St. 63
Gregory the Illuminator, St. 33, 39, 49, 51
Guliev, Vilayat 164
Gyumri (Leninaken, Kumayri, Alexandropol) 31, 68, 97, 222
Haigazian University 134
Hakob IV of Jugha (Julfa), Catholicos 62
Hamazkaine 141
Hamidian massacres (1894–7) 80–2, 83 Hannibal 35
Haramani 35
Haratch 137 Harbord, James G. 93 hay (Armenian) 30
Hayastan (Armenia) 30
Hayastani Hanrapetutiun (Republic of Armenia) 189
Hayk‘ (Armenia) (country) 30
Hayk (Armenia) (newspaper) 184, 189
Haykakan Ashkharh (Armenian World) 181
Hayots Azgayin Khorhrdi Lratu (Bulletin of the National Council of Armenia) 182
Hayots Hamazgayin Sharzhum see ANM health care 10, 167, 207–8, 221–5 Hekimian, K. 139
Hellenization 27
Herodotus 26, 27 Hetum I, King 45, 54 Hetumid family 45 HHSh see ANM
higher education 9, 11, 115, 134, 219–20, 221
Hittite empire, Hittites 27, 31
Hnchak 182
Hnchakian party 78, 79–80, 84, 85, 86, 103, 128, 129, 169, 182, 231
homeland: different meanings for diaspora and inhabitants of Armenian Republic 9, 13–14, 132, 144–5, 240–1; relations with diaspora 21–2, 229–43
hospitality 140–1 Hovannisian, Martine 137, 145 Hovannisian, Raffi 232, 233 Hovannisian, Vahan 234, 238 Hrazdan (river) 26 Hübschmann, Heinrich 26 human rights and freedoms 207
humanitarian aid 100, 171, 204, 230 Hungary 138
Il-Khans 46
imagined community 73–6 IMF 203, 204
immigration 25–6, 42–3, 46, 66, 115, 119, 128, 173; see also migration; refugees
income tax 9, 101
India: Armenian press 5, 74, 180; diaspora 55–6, 139, 242; mythology 28, 29, 35
individualism 140
Indo-European culture and languages 26–30, 34
industry and industrialization 5, 117, 197–8, 199–200, 202, 205
informal economy 20, 119, 168, 201, 214–16, 217, 218, 221, 222, 224, 226, 228
intellectuals 89, 115, 138, 143, 216, 235, 240
international aid 100, 171, 204, 210 international financial institutions 203,
206
international peace-keeping 158 Internet 132, 141–2
Iran and Iranians 21, 48; ancient world 3, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41–2, 56; diaspora 132, 133–4, 144; Karabagh conflict 157, 159; nineteenth and early twentieth century 65–73, 74, 75–6, 82, 84–5 (map 67); relations with Republic of Armenia (1918–1920/21) 106, 110;
Index 249
relations with Republic of Armenia (1991–) 123, 171, 173
Iraq 132 irredentism 14, 60
Isahakian, Avetik 120 Isfahan 47, 133
Islam 27, 43, 45, 71, 72, 73, 80, 82, 85, 86, 87, 134
Islamic Caliphate 42–3 Islamization see Islam Israel 126n, 144
Istanbul see Constantinople Italy, Italians 22, 61, 137, 180, 240 Ivanov, Professor 27–8
Izmir see Smyrna
James of Nisibis, St. 25
Jemal Pasha 92, 94, 109
jermag chart (white massacre) 143 Jerusalem 53; Patriarchate 75 Jews 7, 36, 59, 69, 70, 91, 136, 144 judicial system 9, 101, 114, 179 Justinian, Emperor 42, 52, 53
Kachaznuni, Hovhannes 100, 101, 102 Karabagh see Mountainous Karabagh;
Elizavetpol
Karabagh movement 14, 18, 21, 122, 148, 168, 174, 182–3, 230, 235
Karabekir, Kazim 109
Karakhan, Lev 109, 111
Karavarutian Lraber (Government Bulletin) 182
Kars 43, 45, 66, 68, 95, 96, 97, 100, 102, 104, 105, 110, 119
Kars, Treaty of (1921) 11, 111, 115 Kartvelian language 28 Kassabian, Anahid 144
Kasuni, Ervand 50 Kavkaz (Caucasus) 180–1 Kayseri 27
Kayts (Lightning) 182
Kazanjian, David 144
Kemal, Mustafa (Ataturk) 106, 107, 109, 111
Kessab Education Association 135 Khachaturian, Aram 120 Khanjian, Aghasi 118
Kharpert (Manueret-ul-Aziz) 103 Khatisian, Alexandre 101, 102, 110 Khorenatsi see Movses Khorenatsi Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich 10, 119 Kocharian, Robert 162–3, 173, 175–8,
250 Index
179, 192, 193n, 202, 206, 207, 238–9, 242
Komitas 120 Komsomol 182 Koriun 51 Kotur 66
Kumayri see Gyumri Kura/Araxes culture 26, 33
Kurds 68, 69, 70, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 86, 87
land and real estate ownership 68–9, 82, 170, 201, 202
language 2–3, 4, 6, 11, 25, 26–8, 39, 73, 121, 240; alphabet 4, 39, 51–2, 57–9; diaspora 13, 132, 136, 142, 143
Lausanne treaties (1923) 111 Latin (language) 39
law enforcement forces 168, 171 Law on Co-operation (1987) 200 Law on Leasing (1988) 200
Law on the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens (1994) 236n
Law on TV and Radio Broadcasting (2000) 193
L‹ašen 26
League of Nations 115, 117 Lebanon 132, 133, 134–5 legitimacy 172, 179, 242 Legran, Boris 110
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 10, 11, 109, 114, 115, 119
Leninakan see Gyumri Leningrad, see Saint Petersburg
Leo I, the Great, Pope 53 Lepsius, Johannes 93
Lernayin Gharabagh see Mountainous Karabagh
Lesser Armenia 46, 103
Levon I, the Magnificent 45, 54 Libaridian, Jirair (Gerard) 174, 231–2,
233
life expectancy 225 Lincy Foundation 205 literacy 133, 216
literature 4, 10, 63, 133, 240; see also epics
living standards and conditions 20–1, 119, 170, 204, 209, 221, 226
Lloyd George, David 108
local and regional government 172, 189, 204
Lori 46, 65, 104–5
Magnesia, battle of (190 BC) 35 Mahmud II, Sultan 69 Malatya 27, 36
Malkhasiants, Stephanos 50 Malkom Khan, Mirza 73
Mamikonean, Vardan, St. 33, 39, 51, 56 Mamikonean clan 33, 42
Mamluks 45
Manandian, Hakob 50, 51 Manazkert, battle of (1071) 46 Manichaeism 38, 39 Manoucharian, Ashot 168 Manuel I Comenus, Emperor 53 Manukian, Aram 98
Manukian, Vazgen 168, 172, 174, 190, 234 Marash 108
Mark Antony 36 Markarian, Andranik 177
Marmara 133 Martirosyan, Artashes 51 martyrdom 16, 56 Marukhian, Hrair 233 Marxists 182
marzes (provinces) 172, 196
Mashtots (Maštoc‘), Mesrop, St. 39, 51, 57–9
Matevosian, Artashes 51 Maurice, Emperor 42 Mazaka (Ma¿ak) 27 Mazdaism see Zoroastrianism Media, Medes 3, 26, 31, 34
media: and democracy 17–18, 177–9, 180–95; see also press
Mekhitarists 5, 55, 137, 180, 242 Melitene 27
Melitenioi 27 Menshevik 96, 97, 114 Menua 31
Mesolithic era 2, 26
Mesopotamia, Mesopotamians 25, 28, 30, 33, 106
Mesrop, St. see Mashtots Metsamor 26, 121
Mher (Mithra) 34
Mher, the Younger 36, 63
Miasnikian, Aleksandr 114
Middle East, diaspora 13, 129, 132–3, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 242
migration 66, 68, 113, 117, 127, 133, 148, 152; ancient world 26–30; social problem solving 225–8; see also diaspora; emigration; immigration; refugees
millet (Ottoman Armenian community) 55, 75, 76, 86, 127
Mingrelian language 28 minority rights 104, 108, 195 missionaries 73, 74, 76, 127 Mithra 34, 35, 36 Mkhitarists see Mekhitarists
modernity and modernization 5–6; Armenian 5, 55–6, 60–1, 62–3; Armenian return to de-modernity 113
Molotov, V.M. 119
Mongols 4, 45–6 Morgenthau, Henry 93 mortality rate 225
Moscow 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 75, 76, 89, 106, 109, 110, 114, 115, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 138, 147, 149, 151, 154, 155, 156, 158, 183, 184, 197, 199, 204, 217, 240
Moscow, Treaty of (1921) 11, 111, 115 Mountainous Karabagh 9, 46, 65, 66, 73, 115, 195; conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan 2, 11, 14–16, 94, 105, 109, 121–3, 130,
147–65, 166, 167, 169, 171, 172, 173, 175, 177, 183, 186, 189, 202, 206, 207, 230, 231, 233, 235, 236, 238; declaration of independence 15, 153, 169; map 116
Moussa (Mount) see Musa Dagh Movses (Moses) Khorenatsi 28, 29, 35,
36, 51, 57, 58, 59
Movses I of Tathew, Catholicos 55 Musa Dagh 93, 134–5
Mush 46
Muški 27
Muslim-Armenian relations 66, 68–9, 72, 80, 83, 86–7, 104, 148–9
Mutawakkil, al-, Caliph 43 mythology 3, 28–9, 34, 35–6, 74
Nagorno-Karabagh see Mountainous Karabagh
nakharars (nobility) 33, 41, 43, 52 Nakhichevan 43, 65, 102, 109, 110, 111,
121, 151, 173, 196, 236 Nansen, Fridtjof 115 Narod 142
National Alliance Union (NAU) 234 national army 154, 167–8, 171, 195 National Assembly see Armenian
National Assembly
Index 251
National Association for Armenian Studies and Research (NAASR) 135
National Democratic Union 174 national identity 1–22, 23, 25, 45, 57, 61,
63, 65, 73–6, 89, 228, 229; homelanddiaspora relations 143–5, 237, 143–5, 239–42
national ideology 6, 13, 22, 51, 52, 56–7, 58, 61, 63, 88, 131
national independence, issue in homeland-diaspora relations 144–6, 235
National Press Club 191 nationalism 6, 21, 22, 144, 146;
homeland-diaspora relations 230–40; media 183; Republic of Armenia (1991–) 167, 170, 171, 174, 175, 176, 178, 206; Soviet Armenia 10–11, 12, 14, 15–16, 118, 120, 121–4, 125, 174, 183
NATO Partnership for Peace programme 173
natural resources 196 naxarar see nakharars
Nerses of Lambron, St. 54, 59 Nersüs Šnorhali (the Graceful), St. 33,
53, 54, 59 Nersisian School 181 Nestorianism 53
networking see social networking New Julfa 47, 74
newspapers see press
NGOs 178, 179, 191, 193, 210 Nicholas II, Tsar 90
Noah 23
Nor Gyank 242
North America see Canada; United States
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Partnership for Peace Programme 173
Noyan Tapan 177–8, 193
Nubar Pasha, Boghos 103, 106, 108 nuclear power 2, 121, 187
Nzhdeh, Garegin 110
Olti 104, 105
oral poetry see epics Organization for Security and Co-
operation in Europe (OSCE) 157, 158, 160–1, 172, 173, 178
Ori, Israyel 62 Ormanian, Maghakia 50
252 Index
Orontid dynasty 35 Oskanian, Vartan 232n
Ottoman empire 3, 5–6, 8, 9, 11, 46–7, 65–91, 96, 97, 98, 100, 104, 148; and diaspora 127, 180, 181; maps 48, 67; massacres 6–8, 9, 16, 65, 66, 68, 80–2, 83, 86–7, 91, 107, 108, 113, 139 (see also Genocide)
Ottoman-Persian war (1820–22) 66 Ottoman-Safavid wars 4, 47 Ottomanism 71, 85, 87, 91 OZAKOM 95
Palaeolithic era 2, 26 Palestine 97, 106, 132, 137, 142 Pambak 65
Pan-Armenian National Movement (ANM) see ANM
pan-Turkism 91, 150, 151, 154, 235 Parajanov, Sergei 61, 120
paratag (divine liturgy) 29
Paris Peace Conference (1919) 106–7 Paris Principles (2001) 163
Parthia, Parthians 3, 25, 26, 33, 35, 38, 39, 47, 49
Parthian language 26, 30, 33, 35 People’s Party of Armenia (PPA) 176,
177
perestroika 121, 147; economy 200–1 Periodika 191
Persia see Iran
philanthropic organizations 74, 131 Phillips, Jenny 128
Phrygia, Phrygians 26–7, 29 Phrygian language 27 Plato 29
Plutarch 38
Poland 138
political activism 6–7, 65, 76–81, 82, 84–6, 89, 90, 91; in diaspora 130, 134, 137, 138, 240, 241, 242; Karabagh conflict 14, 147–8, 183 (see also Karabagh movement)
political authority, disillusionment with 215, 226, 227–8
political parties 8, 78–81, 82, 83–6, 129–30, 131, 140, 141; media 182, 184, 187, 189, 234; Republic of Armenia (1918–1920/21) 101–2; Republic of Armenia (1991–) 168–9, 177, 178, 179
political propaganda 185–6, 189 politics 17, 21, 148, 166–79, 186;
Armenian modernity 55–6, 89; diaspora 22, 130, 134, 137, 138, 169, 171, 229–40, 241, 242; see also democracy
Pontic (mountains) 23
population 113, 126n, 196, 225, 226n poverty 19, 167, 187, 204, 207, 208–10,
211, 218, 226
‘Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper’ (PRSP) 210
presidential system 170, 236
press 5, 6, 17–18, 73, 74, 83, 88, 133, 134, 135, 137, 180–95, 232, 234
printing 5, 55, 61, 73
privatization 19, 20, 169, 177, 200–2, 204, 205–7, 236; health services 223–4
professionalism 228; development of media 185, 190–2, 194–5
Project Save 135
Proletariat 182 Protestantism 76, 142
radio 185, 186, 187, 190, 194; diaspora 135
Radio Liberty 194
Ramkavar party 103, 128, 129, 169, 189, 231, 234
real estate see land and real estate ownership
reciprocity see social networking refugees 8, 9, 10, 11–12, 95, 100, 113,
115, 117, 207, 209, 242; Karabagh conflict 15, 154, 158, 166, 169
regional government 189, 204
religion 4, 6, 41–2, 43, 60, 62, 82; ancient Armenian 3, 28, 29–30, 35–6 (see also Zoroastrianism); diaspora 13; Karabaghconflict 151; see also Armenian Church; Christianity
religious identity 132, 239
Republic of Armenia (1918–1920/21) 8–9, 66, 98–104, 149, 166; international relations 105–9; map 99; partition and Sovietization 109–11, 113; regional issues 104–5
Republic of Armenia (1991–) 14–15, 16–17, 103; constitution 170, 172, 189, 236; and diaspora 14, 130, 132, 143, 144–6, 229–39; foreign affairs 171, 173, 175–6; international recognition 171–2; Karabagh conflict see Mountainous Karabagh; media 184–95; see also economy; politics
Republican Party of Armenia (RPA) 176, 177
Republika 177
Respublika Armenia 189
Roman Catholicism 45, 54, 76, 142; see also Mekhitarists
Roman empire, ancient Rome, Romans 3, 25, 30, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54
Romania 138
romantic nationalism 21 Rome 62
Rubenid family 45
Russia; diaspora 138–9, 180, 226, 239; Karabagh conflict 156–7, 158, 159; relations with Republic of Armenia (1991–) 171, 173, 175–6; see also Russian empire; Soviet Union
Russian empire 3, 5–6, 8, 22, 65–84, 87, 89–91, 94–5, 148, 180, 239; Armenian expectations of help from 88, 94; map 67
Russian language education 216–17 Russian Orthodoxy 71
Russian Revolution 8, 95–6 Russo-Persian wars (1804–13, 1826–8)
65, 72
Russo-Turkish wars: (1806–12, 1828–9) 65–6, 68, 77–8; (1877–8) 66, 68, 77–8
Safavid empire 46–7, 49; map 48 Sahak, St., Catholicos 51
Saint Petersburg (Leningrad) 89, 95, 138, 173, 197, 217, 240
Šalmaneser III 31
Šamiram (Sammuramat, Semiramis), Queen 29, 33
samizdat (unofficial press) 18, 183–4 Sardarabad 97, 98
Sarduri 31
Sargon II 31
Sarikamish 91 Sarkisian, Aram 176–7 Sarkisian, Serge 173, 177
Sarkisian, Vazgen 167, 173, 174, 176 Sarksian, Sos 233
Saroyan, William 146
Saryan, Martiros 120
Sasanian empire, Sasanians 25, 26, 36, 38, 41–2, 49, 52, 56, 58
Sasun (see also David of Sasun) 46, 79, 80
Index 253
Sat‘enik 36 Sayat-Nova 61
Schnapper, Dominique 136, 137 sciences 10
Scythians 25, 31 Sebeos (Eusebius) 51
second economy see informal economy Second World War 10, 12, 118, 129, 198,
213
secularization process 56, 60–1, 70, 74 security issues: Mountainous Karabagh 149, 150, 235, 236; diaspora 142–4
Seim 96, 97 Seleucid dynasty 35 Seljuks 4, 45–6, 49 Semitic people 3 Šengavit‘ 26
Sevan basin 110
Sèvres, Treaty of (1920) 108, 111 Shahumian deportations 154 Shamshadin district 65
Shapur III 41 Sharur-Nakhichevan 102, 110, 111 Shehrimanian family 61 Shnorhali, see Nerses Shnorhali Shushi 73, 105
Silin, Otto (representative of Soviet Russia) 113
Siradeghian, Vano 168 Sis, Catholicate 75 Siuni family 43
Sivas province 79, 103 Smbat 45
Smyrna 68, 74, 180 social capital 167
social construction, collective memory as 2
social democracy 85, 236; see also Hnchakian party
social networking 19–21, 131, 132, 140, 195, 211–16, 217, 222, 223, 225, 226, 228
social services 20, 167, 207–8, 216–25, 226, 228
socialism 236
society 19–21, 211–28; costs of economic transition 204, 205, 207–10; diaspora 139–44; inner conflicts connected with modernization process 62–3; nineteenth and early twentieth century 65; Soviet Armenia 10, 20, 117, 213–15
254 Index
socioeconomic status, nineteenth and early twentieth century 65, 68–73, 75, 83, 84, 86–7
South America diaspora 139, 142 South Caucasus 5, 30, 70, 96–8, 100,
104, 148–9; see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia
Soviet Armenia 9, 10–12, 98, 110–11, 113–25, 242; diaspora 14, 128–9; economy 10, 18–19, 114, 117–18, 122–4, 125, 197–201, 203, 213–15; education 10, 11, 115, 216; health services 10, 221–2; map 116; media 18, 182–4; society 20, 117, 213–15
Soviet Union 1, 10, 11, 12, 14, 19, 21, 94, 103, 115, 117–125, 126, 126n, 131, 132, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 166, 171, 182, 183, 184, 188, 195, 197–203, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 221, 240, encouragement for repatriation 128–9; and Mountainous Karabagh 14, 147, 152–7, 159, 235, 236; relations with Turkey 11–12; Republic of Armenia (1918–1920/21)’s relations with 10, 106, 109–11, 113
Spitak see earthquake (1988) Stability bloc 177
Stalin, Joseph 10, 109, 111, 117–19, 151, 213, 229
state authority, disillusionment with 215, 226, 227–8
statistics, unreliability 211, 225n Stepanakert 147
Stolypin, Pyotr Arkodyevich 84, 90 Sultanov, Bogdan 61
Sultanov, Khosrov Bek 105 Sumgait massacre (1988) 15–16, 121,
153–4, 183, 235 Suni, Grigor 120 Surmalu 110, 111 Switzerland 138
symbolic ethnicity 136, 145
Syria 7, 12, 23, 30, 35, 38, 49, 58, 92, 106, 126n, 127, 132, 133, 134, 173
Syriac language 39, 57,
Syrian Christians 49–50, 57, 58, 81,
Tabriz 46, 68, 74, 76, 106, 133; uprising 85
Tacitus 38
Tairov, Nerses (industrialist) 197 Talat Pasha 92, 94
Tanzimat movement 71–2, 77, 85 Taregrutiun (The Chronicle) 180 Tashjian, Sebouh 232
Taurus (mountains) 23, 108 Tbilisi see Tiflis technology 10
Tehran 68, 85, 106, 133 Tekeyan, Vahan 120
television 177–8, 185, 186, 187, 190, 193, 194; diaspora 135
Ter-Minasian, Ruben 102
Ter-Mkrtchian, Galoust 51
Ter Petrosian, Levon 122, 123, 124, 129, 156, 161–2, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 176, 179, 188, 190, 192, 202, 206, 231, 233–4, 235, 237, 238, 242; end of Presidency 172–5
Ter Petrosian, Telman 174 territorial nationalism 6, 10–11, 120 terrorism 130
theatre 74, 152 Theodosius, Emperor 41
Tiflis 22, 68, 70, 74, 76, 79, 89, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 104, 105, 113, 180–1, 239, 240
Tiglath Pileser 31
Tigran (hero) 34–5 Tigran II the Great 3, 36
Tigranakert (Tigranocerta) 36 Tigranakert province see Diyarbekir
province Tigris (river) 23 Timur, Emir 4, 46
Tiridates (Trdat) the Great 38, 39, 49, Tololyan, Khachig 146, 242n topography 23–5, 196; map 24 Torkmanchai, Treaty of (1828) 65 Tosp 31
Totovents, Vahan 118
trade and commerce 5, 47, 60, 86, 127, 138, 139, 173, 197, 203
Transcaucasia see South Caucasus Transcaucasian Federative Republic
96–8
Trebizond (Trabzon) 94, 96, 108, 109 Trialeti culture 26
Tsereteli, I.G. 97
Turkey and Turks 2, 25, 45–6; diaspora in 133; as issue in homeland-diaspora relations 8, 130, 235, 238; Karabagh conflict 15–16, 149, 159, 164; relations with Republic of Armenia (1918–1920/21) 106, 108–11, 113;
relations with Republic of Armenia (1991–) 1, 123, 171, 176 (see also economic blockades); relations with Soviet Armenia 114; relations with USSR 11–12; see also Ottoman empire; Seljuks
Turkism see pan-Turkism t‘ux manuk (Black Youth) 29
UK 126n
Umayyad dynasty 42 UNDP 210
unemployment 20, 167, 208–9, 219, 226 Union for National Self-Determination
184
Union of Journalists of Armenia 191 United Nations 172, 221
United Nations Development Programme 210
United States 8, 68, 103, 107, 108–9, 171, 175; diaspora 115, 126n, 135–6, 141, 142, 145, 171, 226, 231–2; see also missionaries
Unity bloc 176, 177 universities 9, 115, 134, 219–20
Urarteans 2, 3, 25, 26, 28, 31–4, 35; map 32
US, USA, see United States USSR see Soviet Union utopianism 62
Vagharshapat see Etchmiadzin Vahagn 35
Van (Lake) 9
Van 27, 30, 31, 34, 73, 93, 94, 103, 108, 109
Vardan, St. see Maminokean, Vardan, St.
Vardanank Wars (c.450–84) 41–2 Vardenis 26
Vaspurakan 31
Varzhapetian, Nerses, Patriarch 78 Vazgen I, Catholicos 120
Veeser, H. Aram 145 veratznund (rebirth) 5, 55 Verneuil, Henri 137
Versailles, Treaty of (1919) 107 Vidal-Naquet, P. 29
Virgil 38 višap 34
Voice of America 194
Index 255
Vo¢ogases (Valarš) 38
Voskuni, Digran 242
Vramshapuh, King 51
Vratzian, Simon 101, 110
welfare services see social services
Weltanschauung 51
Western Armenia 5, 9, 11, 22, 42, 89–91, 102–3, 107, 131, 132, 144, 239; press 180, 181; see also Cilician Armenia; Ottoman empire; Turkey
Wilson, Woodrow 107, 108–9 wine-cognac industry 197, 202, 207 World Bank 203, 209, 210, 225n World Health Organization 225World
Trade Organization 172
xa‹‘k‘ars (cross-stones) 34 Xenophon 23, 30, 34–5 Xorenac‘i, Movsüs, see Movses
Khorenatsi
Yeltsin, Boris 124
Yerevan 23, 26, 65, 66, 68, 70, 90, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 110, 111, 196; demonstration (1965) 12, 120; demonstration (1988) 14, 183; economy 200, 205, 207, 210; education 218, 219, 221; press 181, 191
Yerevan Press Club 191 Yerkir (Homeland) 187, 192
Yerkrapah parliamentary faction 173, 176, 177
Young Turks 8, 9, 11, 72, 85–8, 91–4, 96, 109
Zangezur 46, 65, 105, 109, 110 Zariadris (Zareh) 35
zartonk (awakening) 6, 56, 73–6, 239 Zhoghovrdakan party see Constitutional
Democrats
Zoroastrianism 26, 29–30, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 41, 51
Zheleznovodsk initiative (1991) 157 Zuhab, Treaty of (1639) 47