Text VI What do we know about global warming?

We can not imagine our life without energy, therefore we continue looking for new safe energy sources.

Energy choices must take into account the progressive depletion of fossil fuels (coal, gas and oil) and the impact they have on the environment, notably greenhouse gas emissions.

Greenpeace warns that if we continue to burn fossil fuels at the same rate as we do today, global warming will reach catastrophic levels.

The ozone layer is a special type of oxygen around the earth. It protects the Earth from ultraviolet radiation which comes from the Sun. Aerosol sprays, exhaust fumes, and other chemicals destroy the ozone layer making a huge hole in it.

Now, too much ultraviolet radiation enters the Earth’s atmosphere through this hole. It is well known that ultraviolet rays can cause skin cancer and some other serious diseases.

Fossil fuel-burning power plants and different factories produce a great amount of carbon dioxide by burning coal, gas, oil and wood. Volcanoes, trees, animals and people also produce natural greenhouse gases.

All these have formed a blanket around the Earth. This blanket is constantly trapping solar radiation heat. It results in the greenhouse effect, which causes serious climate changes.

to take into account	– принимать во внимание
to warn	– предупреждать, предостерегать
hole	дыра

Text VII Russia’s approach to npp decommissioning

Up to 2020 Russia expects to decommission 24 reactor units, as they reach the end of their working lives.

In 1991 the Ministry of Atomic Energy adopted a regulatory document setting out its technical policy and concept of decommissioning.

The Russian policy assumes the principle that decommissioning ordinarily takes place at the end of the lifetime of a unit, or when economic or technical criteria mean that safe operation is no longer possible.

Russia’s policy recognizes that decommissioning follows 4 main phases:

1) shut-down and preparation; standard decontamination of the equipment.

2) preparation for monitored long-term storage; isolation of highly radioactive equipment; dismantling of low-active equipment; removal of radioactive waste and its preparation for long-term storage at the plant.

3) long-term monitored storage of the isolated equipment.

4) final dismantling of the unit and preparation for long-term storage at the plant.

These four phases are likely to take around 30-40 years. It is an optimal period, as it corresponds to the expected operating lifetime of a new reactor unit.

to set up	– учреждать
decontamination	– дезактивация
dismantling	– демонтаж

Appendix

A. Цепочки слов.

I. Существительное + существительное + сущ.

Pattern: electron capture – захват электрона

fossil fuel power plant, breeder reactor development, energy level diagram, fuel enrichment procedure, combustion by-products

II. Существительное + причастие I + сущ.

Pattern: heat-conducting material – материал, проводящий тепло

steam-generating plant, neutron-producing reaction, coal-burning plant, electricity-generating nuclear plant, heat-insulating material

III. Существительное + причастие II + сущ.

Pattern: operator controlled mechanism – механизм, управляемый оператором

water-cooled reactor, computer-controlled device, man-made material, heavy-water-moderated reactor, combustion-produced waste

IV. Существительное + герундий + сущ.

Pattern: emergency core-cooling system – аварийная система охлаждения активной зоны реактора

Reactor-testing station, fuel-loading tube, emergency core-cooling system, fuel-reprocessing plant, reactor loading

V. Существительное + предлог/союз + сущ. + сущ.

Pattern: trial-and-error method – метод проб и ошибок

Plutonium-and-power reactor, loss-of-coolant accident

B. Употребление служебных слов.

as – как, в то время как, по мере того, так, поскольку

as long as – поскольку, до тех пор пока

as soon as – как только

as well as – так же, как

as far as –насколько

1. The fourth state of matter is known as plasma.

2. As far as we know the supplies of oil will not last long.

3. A gas-cooled fast breeder reactor uses helium as a coolant.

4. The breeder blanket would contain lithium and thorium as well as fissionable materials and fission products.

5. As soon as the water level drops below minimum, an injection system is activated.

because – потому что, так как / because of – из-за, вследствие

1. Because of the low pressure of the sodium coolant, the reactor vessel is designed to withstand only low stresses.

2. Because breeders will operate at high temperatures they will have great thermodynamic efficiency.

both – оба / both ... and – как … так и

1. Both scientists studied this phenomenon.

2. Both the moderator and the coolant are heavy water in the Candu system.

either – также (в отрицательных предложениях)

either of –один (из двух), и тот, и другой,

either ... or – либо … либо

neither ... nor – ни … ни

neither – никакой, ни один (прилагательное)

neither – также не (наречие)

1. Either of these two sorts of particles may be of use.

2. Water and concrete are used in nuclear reactors either as a means of slowing down neutrons or as a shield to prevent the escape of neutrons.

3. The pipe didn’t rupture and the accident didn’t take place either.

4. Neither of these two phenomena has yet been thoroughly investigated.

5. Neither are any definite reasons known for this.

6. The universe is neither solid nor liquid nor gaseous.

one – один, единица (числительное)

one – заменитель сущ., безлич. местоимeние

1. This value is equal to one.

2. One of the neutrons must trigger another fission.

3. One neutron is needed to continue the chain reaction, one must convert a fertile nucleus to one that is fissile.

4. Liquid-moderated reactors can be made more compact than graphite moderated ones.

5. The time comes when one has to make decision.

only – только / the only – единственный

1. Hydrogen is the only element containing one electron.

2. The moderator is used only in thermal reactors.

since – с тех пор, с тех пор как, после, с

since – так как, поскольку;

1. Since an atom is electrically neutral it has an equal number of positive and negative charges.

2. The gaseous state of matter has been the subject of investigation since the seventeenth century

term – термин, выражение, срок, условие

in terms of – исходя из, в величинах, в виде, в выражениях

1. We obtained these values in terms of the following formula.

2. The first term corresponds to the mass of the beta stable nucleus.

3. One can express the same information in terms of the decay constant.

4. An international long-term program for fusion research was discussed at the conference.

that (those)– тот, та, те; который; что; чтобы; так, чтобы

that is (i.e. = id est.) – то есть

in that – в том, что; тем, что; в том смысле, что; поскольку

so that – так, чтобы

1. In 1912 Rutherford made the discovery that it was possible to break up a nucleus of nitrogen by a direct hit from an alpha particle.

2. The reactor vessel of a BWR is larger than that of a PWR, both because of lower power density and because more equipment is contained in the vessel.

3. The BWR is different than the PWR in that steam is allowed to form in the core.

4. All the types considered are thermal reactors, that is, the neutrons in them are moderated.

5. The water is highly pressurized, so that it remains below the boiling point.

time – время, период; раз, в несколько раз

at a time – одновременно, за один раз

at no time – никогда

in no time – мгновенно, очень быстро

from time to time – время, от времени

1. Since an atom is electrically neutral it has equal number

   of positive and negative charges*

   2* The gaseous state of matter has boen the subject of investi­gation since the seventeenth century*

   3* tfe have studied the history of man’s use of atomic energy since the beginning of the century up to the present time. 4* Since there is a certain amount of fission in the blanket,

   it must be cooled by sodium* 5* Since this gas does not become radioactive there is no need

   for another heat-exchanger* £• Since Rutherford’s time such devices have divided into two

   classes*

   This reaction proceeds two times as slowly as that one.

2. Both reactions should take place at a time.

3. All the data were processed by the computer in no time.

4. Special arrangements are required to remove radioactive fission by products from time to time.

hard – трудный(-но), твердый / hardly – едва ли

ready – готовый / readily – легко

near– близкий, вблизи, рядом / nearly-почти

current – ток, поток, текущий, современный

currently – в настоящее время

1. Before World War II the French Government bought 40 gallons of heavy water. This was nearly all the heavy water in the world.

2. Current designs provide more than 1,000 megawatts of electric power per reactor.

3. The US currently get more than 15 percent of its energy in the form of imported oil.

4. We can control the flow of current in the circuit.

5. This fact seems hard to understand.

6. This type of accident can hardly occur.

7. The emergency system is always ready to operate.

8. This element occurs in its readily fissionable form.

a number – число, номер

a number of – ряд, несколько

the number of – число, количество

1. This control can be achieved by a number of techniques.

2. The conductivity depends on the number of ions present.

3. Nuclear power plants have a number of advantages over conventional power plants.

4. The development of nuclear power industry poses a number of problems.

a result – результат

as а result – в результате, как результат

to result in – приводить к

to result from – проистекать из

1. The results were published in the document.

2. As a result it is possible for the control systems to control the reactivity of a reactor in normal operation.

3. A sudden loss of coolant pressure may result from a rupture of the pressure vessel.

4. A sequence of such events may result in the automatic shutdown of the reactor.

turn – поворот, оборот; поворачивать(-ся)

in turn – по очереди, в свою очередь

to turn into – превращаться в

to turn out – оказываться

to turn on/off – включить/выключить

1. Light-water reactors are in turn classified as either pressurized-water reactors or boiling-water reactors.

2. The result turned out to be in good agreement with the values expected.

3. Coal should be turned into synthetic gas and oil.

4. The emergency core-cooling system turned itself on automatically two minutes after the accident, but the operators turned it off.

too – тоже, также; слишком, чрезмерно

1. Oil and gas production is becoming too expensive.

2. The resources of uranium are limited, too.

3. This problem is too serious, we must discuss it now.

last – последний, прошлый (прилагательное)

to last – длиться, продолжаться, хватать

at last – наконец, в конце концов

1. This experiment was carried out last week.

2. The world’s uranium resources will last very long.

3. One cycle of this plant’s operation lasts 3 hours.

4. And at last the radioactive waste is buried.