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THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE 20th CENTURY

Warming-up

1.What works of Le Corbusier can you name?

2.What did Le Corbusier build in Moscow?

3.What other greatest 20th century architects do you know?

Read the text and tell about Le Corbusier's creative activity

CHARLES EDOUARD (JEANNERET) LE CORBUSIER (1887 – 1966)

Le Corbusier was the dominant figure internationally in modern architecture from 1920 to 1960.

He proposed the "Modulor", a system of proportions grounded on the golden section or the Fibonacci series using the human figures as its basis, formulated the famous definition of architecture as 'the masterly correct and magnificent play of masses brought together in light'. His comparisons with engineering constructions and with modern forms of transportation were formulated into such oft-misunderstood postulates as he house is a machine for living in' and that it should be as practically constructed as a typewriter. By this he meant not a mechanistic 'machine aesthetic1 but rather complete rationality in plan, capacity for serial-production and function.

His 'five points for a new architecture': the pilotis, roof terraces, free plan, continuous window strips and free facade composition were to be the essential elements of the new aesthetic.

Le Corbusier's works have become monuments of modern architecture with their general independence of terrain as well as a rich variety of interior and exterior spaces achieved by means of 'double-height rooms, gallery floors, bridges and ramps with views into the interior as well as 'framed' views looking out, all expressions of a genuine luxury in architecture.

Le Corbusier's long period as a leading figure in modern architecture – for nearly half a century – was unique among architects of his time and is, finally, a reflection of his capacity to endow architecture with an expression which evokes the spirit of his epoch. In this sense he was at once the 'terrible simplificateur' in the tradition of the rationalist enlightenment and a creator of forms which will endure well beyond his time.

Among his works are Villa Savoye, Poissy (1929 – 1931); Pavilion Suisse, Cite Universitaire, Paris (1930 – 2); The Clarte apartment house in Geneva (1930-1932); Unite d'Habitation, Marseilles (1947 – 1952); the urban planning schemes for large North African and South American cities, (the 1930s); the Pilgrimage church of Notre Dame – du – Haut at Rou-champ (1950 – 1954); the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University in Cambridge,

Massachusetts (1961 – 1964); the plan of the city of Chandigarh, India (1950 – 1951), and others.

Vocabulary oft-misunderstood – часто понимаемый неправильно capacity – способность

continuous – сплошной terrain – местность

ramp – скат, уклон, наклонная плоскость luxury – роскошь

to endow – наделять, одарять

to evoke – вызывать (восхищение) enlightenment – просвещение

to endure – выдерживать испытание временем; длиться, продолжаться

II. Complete the following sentences

1. According to Le Corbusier, "the house should be as practically constructed as

...".

a)free facade composition

b)conspicuous use of decoration

c)complexity of forms

4. Le Corbusier worked out the urban planning schemes for Paris and for several large North African and ... cities.

a)South African

b)North American

c)South American

BRITISH ARCHITECTURE

Buildings: first impressions

What makes the look of British towns and cities distinctive? The most striking feature is the lack of blocks of flats. People prefer to live in individual houses — units with their own front doors and sometimes gardens. Perhaps this says something about the national character; a love of privacy and a lack of interest in the wider community. There is a proverb: "An Englishman's home is his castle."

Whatever the deeper reasons for it, the result is that British towns and cities are full of two or three-storey houses. Only in the 1950s and 60s did councils start building tall blocks of flats in the American style; but these have been very unpopular, and the cheaper ones are now being demolished.

Another distinctive feature of British buildings is the use of brick. Some of the oldest monuments, like Hampton Court Palace or Queens' College, Cambridge, are made of brick. It remains the favourite material for new houses today. While the rest of the world prefers concrete, for some reason the British taste is for brick, at least in smaller buildings.

British architecture

Apart from some ancient churches, the oldest buildings you will see in Britain are castles. They are dotted all over the country, with many beautiful examples in Scotland and Wales. They were first built by the Normans after their invasion of England in 1066. The Tower of London dates from about 1078. Because of the Normans' desire to control the population, they started to build castles everywhere, but especially in the more restless regions. For example, King Edward I built a series of massive castles in Wales at the end of the 13th century; his aim was to keep the lawless Welsh under English rule.

As the dominance of the English crown was established, the need for castles diminished. Then the use of gunpowder meant that they could no longer resist attack. So by the 15th century the castle-building age was over. Many Scottish castles are from a later period, but these are not military buildings; they are aristocratic family houses that imitated older styles.

Since the Middle Ages, architecture in Britain (as in most of Europe) has been based on three major styles: Gothic, classical, and modern. The great early

cathedrals and churches are in Gothic style - tall, with pointed arches and highly decorated; they are covered in sculptures of people, animals and plants. The buildings are fantastic engineering achievements., constructed with very little machinery and designed by architects whose names have been forgotten. The tallest spire in Britain, at Salisbury Cathedral, is 123 metres high and was built in the 1330s. It is incredible that such size and perfection were achieved without a single crane or computer!

After the Gothic period, architectural fashion looked back to the classical age of Greece and Rome for its inspiration. So we see columns and triangular pediments as on Greek temples; round arches, domes and perfect Latin lettering as on Roman public buildings. Many of the finest London churches are in this style; St Paul's Cathedral (built by Sir Christopher Wren between 1675 and 1710) is the biggest and most celebrated, but there are many more all over the city.

Not only churches were in the classical style. Rich aristocrats built huge and impressive houses surrounded by parkland; they are on such a grand scale that it is difficult to imagine that they were once private homes, but of course they had dozens and sometimes hundreds of servants.

Many of the most beautiful parts of British cities consist of houses in this style. The period of kings George I to George IV is known as the Georgian period, and cities such as London, Edinburgh, Bristol and Bath still today have large numbers of elegant Georgian houses, which give the streets a striking sense of unity and design.

In the 19th century, during the Victorian age (taking its name from Queen Victoria), architects went back to medieval Gothic ideas for their inspiration. At first sight it is sometimes difficult to tell whether a Victorian church is 100 or 500 years old! At the same time, classical styles did not disappear altogether. In fact, there was a "Battle of the Styles" between classical and Gothic. The British Museum (1823) was a victory for the classical, and the Houses of Parliament (1836) for the Gothic. There was also debate about the use of iron and steel: should these new materials be visible, as in the new bridges and railway stations, or hidden, as in the Natural History Museum, London, where the metal frame is covered by coloured brick and stonework?

From the 1920s on, new ideas were transforming art and music, and architecture, too, was caught up in the modernising culture. People wanted buildings which were not just copies of the past. Having abandoned both classical and Gothic styles, the challenge was to create - to invent -something really new. Luckily, this change in attitude came at the same time as exciting new engineering materials were becoming available.

With concrete and steel together, and new types of glass, it was possible to escape from the traditional forms. For the first time in history, architects were free to make almost any shapes they liked.

Richard Rogers

British architecture is going through a dynamic period, with several big international names such as James Stirling and Norman Foster. Perhaps the architect best known in Britain is the designer of the Millennium Dome, Richard Rogers. He too, has carried out many major projects abroad. He was responsible for the airport in Marseille, numerous office complexes in Japan and the USA, and (with an Italian, Renzo Piano) for the great Centre Pompidou in Paris. In his own country he has worked on many smaller projects, such as the flats shown in the photograph on the right. But he is best known for the most spectacular modern building in the financial centre of London - the Lloyd's Building. Although it contains a very conservative insurance business, and is in the oldest part of London, it is an extraordinary and daring piece of modern architecture - all steel and glass, with pipes and lifts on the outside.

Richard Rogers is also modern in his philosophy. He is extremely concerned about the environmental aspects of design: can a building use solar power, can it make the most of natural light, and can it function without wasteful air conditioning? He is keen to make London a better place to live in, with less traffic and more spaces in which people can enjoy city life. Talking about famous parts of the city like Oxford Circus, Parliament Square and Marble Arch, he says: "They are dangerous, degrading, inhuman and unnecessary spaces where vehicles have replaced people, and the servant has become the master. ...

clean, live-work cities based upon the bicycle and upon walking, are absolutely possible." Happily, the government is beginning to follow Rogers' advice and the future of London is looking brighter; there are, for example, plans for a carfree Trafalgar Square.

Topics for discussion

Which are more common in your area – houses or flats? Which do you prefer?

Do you enjoy walking round old buildings such as castles? If so, why?

Is the architecture in your country very different from that in Britain?

Why do you think architectural styles change from time to time?

Do you take notice of new buildings around you? Which ones do you admire?

What should be the priorities of architects today – beauty, environmental factors or what?

PART III

Amsterdam

The city of Amsterdam (formerly Amsterdam) lies at latitude 52°22'30" north and longitude 4°53'48" east, in the Dutch province of North Holland. The centre of the old town, Dam Square, lies 2.20 meters above sea level on flat peat land at the dammed mouth of the River Amstel south of the IJ, an extended bay of the former Zuiderzee. The city covers an area of 20,743 ha, of which 4,184 ha are water. The population of Amsterdam in 2003 was 719,500 – 5.24% of the Netherlands' 13.8m inhabitants.

Amsterdam was the most important trading city of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces (1588 – 1795). Only in 1813 did Amsterdam become the capital of the Netherlands, when after the French occupation (1795 – 1813) the Kingdom of the Netherlands was founded. The title of capital is only a symbolic one, since the seat of the government, the ministries and the Parliament remain in the Hague, the old residence of the Counts of Holland, which had also since the end of the 16th century been the seat of central institutions of the Republic, the Prince of Orange, the Stadtholder, and the government of the province of Holland. The kings of the House of Orange, however, are inaugurated in Amsterdam's New Church on Dam Square.

The oldest document mentioning Amsterdam is a toll privilege granted by Count Floris V of Holland in 1275 to the homines manentes apud Amestelledamme, the people living near the Amstel Dam. The inhabitants were exempted from paying toll-dues to the Count in the interests of their trade. The dam across the River Amstel was not much older than the town itself, dating back to about 1270. Thanks to the privilege granted in 1275, Amsterdam was able to establish itself as a trading town, and development began quickly. Amsterdam received civic rights under a charter from Guy of Hainault, Lord of Amstel; these rights were confirmed in 1342 by William IV of Hainault, Count of Holland.

About 1300 the city government consisted of schout en schepenen (sheriff and aldermen) who exercised jurisdiction, enacted keuren (regulations), managed the city's affairs with specialized assistance from four raden or burgemeesters (councillors or burgomasters). During the 14th century the burgomasters became the actual governors of the city, with particular charge of municipal finances and public works such as care of the town ramparts, walls,

dykes and canals, and the Town Hall and other municipal buildings, while the power of the burgomasters grew, the duties of the sheriff and aldermen were gradually confined to jurisdiction. In the first half of the 15th century the care of the municipal finances and the execution of public works were delegated to a board of four thesaurieren (treasurers) under the supervision of the burgomasters, who also supervised in the second half of the 15th century the board of fabriekmeesters or timmermeesters (masters of the works or master carpenters), which was charged with executing public works and ensuring the observance of building regulations.

The medieval town centre near St Olof's Gate was surrounded by a wall from 1380. A new fortress was built in 1481. The oldest monuments are the ecclesiastic institutions of the various religions. The originally cruciform Oude Kerk (Old Church) dates from the 13th century. The Beguine Dutch lay order was existing in 1346. Their buildings became known as the Begijnhof (Beguinage). The oldest, the Wooden House (No. 34), dates from the second half of the 15th century; No. 6 still possesses a wooden frame behind its stone facade. The Oudezijds or St Olof's Chapel (Oudersplein 13), in origin a 15th century chapel, had been adjoined to the St Olof's Gate demolished in the 17th c. The Nieuwe Kerk (New Church) on Dam Square is a three-aisled, in part fiveaisled basilica built originally in the 15th century but several times destroyed by fire and rebuilt. The Oude Walenkerk (Old Walloon Church) was also begun in the 15th century; since 1578 it has served a congregation of French-speaking Calvinists.

The oldest type of house in Amsterdam was made of wood, but it gradually gave way to stone housing because of the fire risk. The only wooden houses still in existence are in the Begijnhof and in the Zeedijk. Amsterdam's most typical houses are narrow and deep and with one or two floors built on a voorhuis (hall) with in insteek, a room forming a kind of gallery to the hall. There was sometimes an independent achterhuis behind. Until 1650 most houses were built with stepped gables, from which more elaborate versions such as the Vredeman de Vries and the Hendrick de Keyser types developed. The stepped gable was superseded by the 'neck' facade, sometimes divided by pilasters, the most beautiful examples of which were designed by Philips Vingboons.

The 16th century was a period of unrest, in which the Reformation coincided with mounting opposition to absolutism. The enmities were deepened as the County of Holland, just like the other Dutch provinces, was in personal union with the House of Habsburg. During the reign of Philip II (1555 – 1581), King of Spain, a growing resistance to the activities of the Inquisition and other measures that conflicted with Dutch interests led to the Eighty Years' War (1568

– 1648). Amsterdam joined the side of the revolt only in 1578, but played an important role in the independent republic that was formed on the basis of the Union of Utrecht in 1579.

In spite of its rather unfavourable position on the Zuiderzee, Amsterdam in the 15th and particularly the 16th century developed into the foremost trading city of Holland, with its activities centring on the Baltic trade. The oldest parts of the town are bounded by the Burg-wallen (city canals), within which the shipping business was originally confined. Later, room for shipping activities was found at the Oude Waal and Kromme Waal outside the fortifications in the area known as the Lastage.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Amsterdam became the centre for trade with the East Indies and a world port and staple city for colonial goods. The East and West Indian Companies built warehouses, offices, shipyards and maintenance yards.

From 1613 onwards the old medieval centre was enlarged with the famous ring of canals, which was enclosed by the fortified Singelgracht. Windmills were built on the ramparts of this canal, and a wooden palisade, closed at night, was built around the IJ harbour. Five gates opening onto the roads to Weesp, Muiden, Utrecht, Leiden and Haarlem were built in the walls.

Regulations prescribed what sort of factories could be allowed within the walls. Outside there was a strange medley of little workshops, poor housing and taverns, especially along the Amstel, Boerenwetering and Over-toom. The town expansion plan of 1613 (which was more or less implemented by 1662) was so lavish that there was room inside the city walls for recreation areas like the Plantage, a popular space for taverns and summer cottages.

Zuiderkerk (South Church), the first Protestant church of Amsterdam, was built between 1603 and 1611 by the architect Hendrick de Keyser. It is a fine example of Dutch Renaissance with sandstone columns and richly ornamented facades, now restored and used as a social . and cultural centre for the neighbourhood. The various denominations all built important churches: the Roman Catholic hiding church Ons' Lieve Heer op Zolder (Our Dear Lord on the Loft, 1662 – 3), the Mennonite hiding church Het Lam (The Lamb, 1607) and the Oude Lutherse Kerk (Old Lutheran Church, 1633). The Portuguese Synagogue, built in 1671 – 1675 and designed by Elias Bouman, stands in a courtyard. Stalpaert's I7th century Grote Sjoel (Great Synagogue) and Maybaum's 18th century Meije Sjoel (New Synagogue) form a single building.

The city's visual character stems from its administrative and commercial buildings, from which an idea of the city's commercial and industrial activities can be had. The Royal Palace on Dam Square was originally built as a town hall (1648 – 62). The former St Anthony's Gate (1488) was converted into the Waag (Weighbridge House, 1617 – 18), where a number of gilds had rooms on the upper storey. The characteristic De Geyer (Corn Mill) dates from the same period, and so does the Munttoren (Mint Tower). The Harbour Office used to be the Schreierstoren, a rampart tower from the later Middle Ages. The Trip

family's Trippenhuis is a characteristic building with chimneys in the form of barrels, to recall the guns manufactured in the Trip foundries.

Houses along the canals in the 18th century were mostly built in the Louis XIV, XV and XVI styles. All the bridges were built in the lyth and 18th centuries, either with stone arches or simply on wooden piles. Where it became necessary drawbridges were also built of which the Magere Bridge crossing the Amstel and Sloterdijk bridge on Prinsen Island are the most beautiful. In the igth century numerous arched bridges were lowered and transformed into girder bridges. (Later, with the exception of two, the igth c. bridges were removed.)

The 17th century was a flourishing period in the architecture of Amsterdam. It was then that the foundation stone of the New Town Hall and of the Bourse were laid, and churches, towers and numerous welfare institutions were built. The architect Hendrick de Keyser designed the Westerkerk, the Zuiderkerk, and perhaps the Noorderkerk too. He also designed the_Bourse, the Munttoren, the Montelbaanstoren and the Haring-pakkerstoren. The architect of the New Town Hall was Jacob van Campen, assisted by Daniel Stalpaert.

In the mid – 17th century the Palladian style appeared, the most mature examples of which are the plain sandstone facades, ornamented by Dutch Renaissance pilasters, of Philips Vingsboons. Later numerous Neo-classical buildings such as the City Hall were built in this style. But the roads serving these new large edifices remained uncompleted as the development of Amsterdam slowed down in the 18th century and were only finished in the mid19th century.

Administrative changes followed the periods of economic activity. In the 16th century, a single fabriekmeester was in charge of the execution of public works with timmermeester and stadsmetselaar (town bricklayer) as his subordinates. After 1501 building inspection was passed to the rooimeesters (surveyors). The fabriekmeester had to account for his expenses to the treasurers. After the end of the 16th century, a clear distinction was made between the administrative duties of the fabriekmeester and the technical duties of the stadsmeester-timmerman (master architect), stadsmeestermetselaar (master bricklayer), and stadsmeestersteenhouwer (master stone mason). From 1633 the treasurers directly supervised public works, and thus the town masters, whose number was increased again (geometer, superintendent of digging and earthworks, water, locks, and so on). In 1746 all the above-mentioned officials were subordinated to one Directeur-Generaal van Stadswerken en Gebouwen (Director-General of City Works and Buildings). From 1777 three directors were appointed, each with his own department, including one for architectura civilis, the city's buildings. In 1809, a Commissaris over de Publieke Werken (Commissioner of Public Works) was appointed. The number of the departments and directors changed several times. From 1820 to 1850 two departments existed: the director of the Stads-fabriekambt (City Building Office) and the director of the City

Water Works. After several reorganizations, the activities of the stadsarchitect, the stadsingenieur and the Commissioner of the Public Works were merged into the Dienst der Publieke Werken (Public Works Service), under the control of the Alderman for Public Works. As parts of this Service grew the Architect's Office and the Engineer's Office.

The Batavian Revolution brought a change in the political structure of the state. After the entry of the French army, the pro-Orange government resigned. In 1813 the Kingdom of the Netherlands was established after the flight of the French. In the mid – 19th century Amsterdam went through a crisis due to a recession that affected the port, trade and industry. The problems of urbanization were also multiplying. Growing immigration from the country to the city caused a lack of housing, and people sometimes even lived in cellars. The silting up of the Zuiderzee caused pollution of the canals.

The city corporation was unable to develop a plan to compare with the 17th century city. Slowly the city even began to sell the land that it did possess. The 1866 design of the city engineer Van Niftrik for a new girdle of residential and industrial districts around the 17th century city, with many parks and wide streets, was rejected.

Extension and enlargement of the city fell into the hands of private individuals, who sought the cheaper solution of following existing patterns and adding one street after another. That was the way in which igth century districts like De Pijp in the south, Dapperbuurt in the east, and Staatsliedenbuurt and Kinkerbuurt in the west were developed. Although the streets were laid out according to plans provided by the city, the authorities were unable to ensure housing standards, and maintenance of the new buildings was neglected for lack of money. Under the pretext of modernization numerous 17th century monuments, gates and towers were demolished. In the 20th century rehabilitation of these 19th century districts became an urgent task.

Gradually the city authorities became better able to improve conditions for economic development and allow standards of public hygiene to improve.

First the harbour was provided with a better entrance when the Groot Noordhollands Kanaal (Great North Holland Canal, 1819 – 24) was dug from Den Helder to Amsterdam, and two new harbours, Oosterdok (1832) and Westerdok (1834), were built. However, the length of the Groot Noordhollands Canal prevented it from being a success, and only when the Noordzeekanal (North Sea Canal) from IJmuiden to Amsterdam opened in 1876 was the desired result fully achieved. In 1871 plans were put forward for ensuring the circulation of the water hi the city's canals. The most important step towards higher standards of hygiene was the opening in 1851 of the central waterworks. The gas, electricity and transport networks were developed. Each had originally been in private hands, but later the city authorities took them over, leading to the foundation of the Gas en Electriciteitsbedrijf (Gas and Electricity Service),