1523

the fifteenth century Moscow had become the most important trading centre in the state of Rus, and was generally recognized as the national capital of the Russian people.

In 1480, a great victory finally put an end to Tatar power in Rus and freed Europe from the Mongol threat.

Moscow's rapidly growing economic and political significance in the first half of the fourteenth century was the main reason for moving the metropolitan's residence to Moscow, which from then on became the ecclesiastical centre of all of Russia.

At the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries a single, centralized Russian state was formed.

The growth of the state's political might was reflected in the way the town was developed, built up and planned.

In 1475 – 79, the new Cathedral of the Assumption, designed by the Italian architect Aristotele Fioravante, was erected. This cathedral was built according to the canons of Russian architecture and became the state's main cathedral. The second to be built was the Cathedral of the Annunciation (1484 – 89), followed by the Cathedral of the Archangel (1505 – 09). The Faceted Hall had been built somewhat earlier, and by the end of 1600 the construction of the Belfry of Ivan the Great had been completed. Thus, the Cathedral Square in the Kremlin took shape and came to symbolize the complete formation of a unified Russian state.

At the same time, new brick walls were built around the Kremlin, and these have in the main been preserved to the present day. Red Square (in Old Russian "krasny" – red – also meant "beautiful") was created along the east wall of the Kremlin. In the middle of the sixteenth century, on the south side of Red Square overlooking the river Moskva, the Cathedral of the Intercession was erected to commemorate the conquest of Kazan. This cathedral is one of the masterpieces of Russian architecture. On the western side of the square stood rows of market stalls, as many as two hundred of them. Each row of stalls bore the name of the goods that were sold there, for instance harness row, saddle row, needle row.

In the sixteenth century Moscow was one of the largest towns in Europe, occupying an area of 533 hectares, with a population of about 200,000. As the population was so large, the working people were turned out of the Kremlin area, and some of the merchants and artisans settled separately in Zamoskvorechie (beyond the Moskva river) and in Zaryadie. The areas of Moscow beyond the river Neglinnaya (Zaneglimenie) and beyond the river Yauza (Zayauza) were also extensively settled.

Moscow gained in importance as an economic centre. Settlements of craftsmen mushroomed and expanded in Moscow, and subsequently many squares and streets in the town were named after them: the "Kuznechnaya sloboda" (the blacksmiths' settlement – Kuznetsky Most [Blacksmiths' Road]), the Goncharnaya sloboda (the potters' settlement-embankment, passage and

lanes), the Kozhevennaya sloboda (tanners' settlements-embankment, street, lanes), and the Taganskaya, Kotelnicheskaya (boilers'), Kadashi and Khamovniki (linen weavers) settlements. Special settlements for those who served the court were called Povarskaya (cooks'), Khleb-naya (bakers'), Stolovaya (stewards'), Konyushennaya (Grooms') and so on. All in all, the settlements of the court officials, the military, the monasteries and the "taxed", i.e., bearing the main burden of the city's taxes, numbered up to one hundred and fifty.

In the interests of Moscow's defences, the stone Kitai Gorod wall and gate towers were erected in 1535 (architect: Petrok Maly). This wall divided the trading centre from the rest of the city, joining it to the Kremlin on the eastern side. The remains of this wall and some of the gates (Tretyakovsky Proezd) can still be seen in the centre of Moscow today. The Kitai Gorod wall formed a second ring of fortifications around the Kremlin. Half a century later two more rings of fortifications were built: the Bely Gorod (White Town – 1585 – 91; architect: Feodor Kon), and the Zemlyanoi Gorod or Skorodom 1591) which further consolidated the radial ring-shaped plan of Moscow. The wall of the Bely Gorod was erected along the line of the present Boulevard ring road. It was built of brick with many "blind" towers and dozens of gated towers opening onto Moscow's radial streets. The fortifications of the Zemlyanoi Gorod ran along the line of the present Sadovoye Koltso (Garden Ring Road) and were about sixteen kilometres in length. A wooden wall with 34 gates was built on the high Zemlyanoi rampart, and about one hundred blind towers.

A new, national style of architecture began to emerge in sixteenth-century Moscow, drawing upon the folk wooden architecture. The creation and development of stone churches of the "pillar" and "tent-roof" type is the most remarkable phenomenon in sixteenth century church building. Among such churches are the Cathedral of the Intercession on the moat (the church of St Basil the Blessed – Vasili Blazhenny-built by the Russian architects Postnik, Yakovlev and Barma), the church of St Antipy, the Cathedral of the Convent of the Nativity (Rozhdestvensky), and the Church of St Nicetas (Nikita chto za Yauzoi).

The Russian architecture flourished anew in the seventeenth century. The style known as Moscow Baroque (the Naryshkin style) appeared. The soaring movement of these stone churches, with their multiple pillars and intricate detail gave them a quite new look of lightness and airiness. The most outstanding monuments in the Naryshkin style are the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin in Fili and the Upper Petrovsky Monastery, which was rebuilt.

Most of the buildings in seventeenth – century Moscow were built of wood. However, the boyars' mansions, the courtiers' homes, and the churches were more and more frequently of stone: the Church of the Nativity in Putinki (1652, on Chekhov Street), the ensemble of the Upper Petrovsky Monastery (end of the

seventeenth century, on Petrovka Street), the Trinity Church in Nikitniki (end of the seventeenth century, near Old Square – Staraya PJoshchad), the mansion of Boyar Volkov (seventeenth century, in Kharitoniev Lane) and others.

Most of the road surfaces in Moscow were made of wood; only those leading up to the Kremlin gates were cobbled. The Moscovites obtained drinking water from the rivers and streams, of which there were many in old Moscow.

Political upheavals and wars left their mark on the town. It was many times burnt down and rebuilt, each time gaining outstanding new buildings. After the fire of 1626 the Tsar issued an edict providing for the widening of the streets and lanes in the Kremlin and the adjacent districts to 12 – 13 metres.

The Kremlin towers were decorated with peaked roofs, and a new clock appeared on the Barbican of St Frol (Spassky Gate). The moat running along the Kremlin wall was spanned by stone bridges across to Red Square.

The growth of Moscow and its population-resulted at the beginning of the seventeenth century in the setting up of two special establishments, the Zemskii Prikaz (the chief police and judicial office for the city of Moscow) and the Pushkarskii Prikaz (gunners' office), to take charge of improving the city and ensuring public order.

The planning of Moscow was mainly determined by the radial, circular system of building that had been formed. However, between the city's main arteries, the radial streets, infilling was haphazard.

Government construction work in Moscow was supervised by an office that was specially created in the seventeenth century, the Prikaz Kamennikh Del (the Stone Work Office).

At the beginning of the eighteenth century the capital of the state was moved to St Petersburg. However, Moscow continued to be regarded as Russia's second capital and remained an extremely important political, economic and cultural centre. By that time the city had 16,357 households.

In the first quarter of the eighteenth century a number of planning edicts were issued by the government. Only the building of stone structures was permitted in the Kremlin, the Kitai Gorod and the Bely Gorod. Paving of the streets with cobblestones began.

Though no overall replanning of the city took place between 1700 and 1725, whole sections were replanned. In 1722, to ensure constant supervision of building work, the special post of Chief of Police was instituted, to take charge of an office which received detailed instructions on all the previous planning edicts applying to the city.

From 1742 onwards an "architectural class" operated at the Chief of Police's office, issuing plans and building permits. The "architectural class" continued to function until 1780, when the Kamenny Prikaz (Stone Work Office) was put hi charge of supervising architecture for two years. After that was abolished in 1782, the job passed to the Uprava Blagochiniya (Police Office).

In 1739, the architect Ivan Michurin worked out the first master plan for the city, based on a geodesic survey. The plan reflected the actual state of building in the city and provided for improved planning of Moscow's streets. In the plan the new boundary of Moscow was indicated for the first time. It ran along the Kompa-neisky (subsequently Kamer-Kollezhsky) Wall, which enclosed the settlements and the outlying houses beyond the old Moscow limits, the Zemlyanoi Wall.

The Kamer-Kollezhsky Wall was built in 1742 as a means of controlling the goods brought into the city and levying duty on them. There were gates all along the wall. Even now, some Moscow streets still bear the names of sections of this wall-Sushchevsky Wall, Butyrsky Wall, Tryokhgorny Wall, and so on.

In the eighteenth century the appearance of Moscow was enhanced by the many private residences of the gentry and by public buildings in Classical Style, often designed by outstanding architects, like V. I. Bazhenov, K. I. Blank, M. F. Kazakov, G. Quarenghi, I. Korobov, V. V. Rastrelli, and D. V. Ukhtomsky. Among the most significant buildings of the period are: the Pashkov House on Prospekt Marxa (architect V. I. Bazhenov, 1786), the palace of Catherine the Great on the river Yauza (architect G. Quarenghi, end of the eighteenth century), the Dom Dvoryanskogo Sobraniya (Court Assembly House) on Prospekt Marxa (architect M. F. Kazakov, 1784), Moscow University (architect M. F. Kazakov, 1793), and many others.

In the eighteenth century considerable changes took place in the administration of Moscow. The urban reforms of Peter the Great led to the foundation of elected organizations of posadskie (people making their living by the retail trade, handicrafts, or by hiring labour), of ratushi (organs of municipal administration) and of the magistracy that took over from them. Under the zhalovannaia gramota (the charter granting properties, rights, privileges and immunities), new municipal institutions (such as the six-member executive known as the shestiglasnaia duma) were founded.

By that time, a system of institutions had been formed to deal, among other things, with building work, the improvement of public services and amenities in the city, and the running of them: the Office of the Governor-General of Moscow, the Office of the Governor of Moscow, the Moscow Provincial Board, and others.

In the second half of the eighteenth century control of planning and building in the two capitals was carried out by the Planning Commission of St Petersburg and Moscow. A special department to control building and improve the layout of the city was set up in Moscow in 1774. The department worked out a master plan for the city, for which approval was granted by Catherine the Great. But the plan was never carried out, since it conflicted with the interests of private landholders in the city. In 1786, the Vodootvodny Canal was built, some embankments were put in order and a number of inner-city streets were paved.

An extremely important event for Moscow was the beginning of the construction of the first gravity – feed water main from the Mytishchi springs in 1779. The pipeline was completed in 1804. In five Moscow squares fountains were erected from which water could be taken to the houses in barrels. At the end of the eighteenth century demolition of the delapidated wall of the Bely Gorod began and boulevards laid out in its place. Moscow's first boulevard, Tverskoi Boulevard, dates from 1796.

By the end of the eighteenth century the population of Moscow had grown to 300,000. The area within the Zemlyanoi Wall was approximately 9,000 hectares.

Moscow gradually extended its limits by incorporating the settlements around the city.

Napoleon's invasion of Moscow in 1812 was disastrous. During the French occupation almost three-quarters of the city were destroyed by fire. According to official data 7,632 of the 9,151 houses were listed as having been burnt down. In 1813, a Building Commission was set up to rebuild Moscow. A leading role on it was played by the architect O. I. Beauvais; the architects V. Balashov, D. Borisov, D. Grigoriev, and I. Zhu-kov were also involved in the Commission's work.

The Commission issued strict architectural regulations for the reconstruction of old buildings and the construction of new ones, and supervised the replanning of the city to see that this was done, keeping in mind the best examples of Russian architecture.

An important part in this process was played by the Institute of Architecture, founded by M. F. Kazakov. The five million roubles allocated by the government were insufficient to rebuild the city, and so the expense of reconstruction was mostly borne by the inhabitants. Some buildings in the centre of the city were rebuilt according to the Commission's plan, in particular, the Petrovsky (now the Bolshoi) Theatre (architects O. I. Beauvais and A. Kavos), Moscow University (architect D. Gilliardi) and others. In the 18205 and 18305 Teat-ralnaya Square and the squares at the Triumfalny, Krasny and Arbatsky gates were laid out. During rebuilding of the houses, some streets were straightened, and the Zemlyanoi Wall (Zemlyanoi Gorod) was pulled down and replaced by a wide circular thoroughfare, the Sadovoye Koltso (the Garden Ring Road). The river Neglinnaya, which flowed through the very centre of the city, was channelled underground (1823).

In the first half of the nineteenth century there appeared several splendid creations by outstanding architects : the Manege (riding-school-architect O. I. Beauvais, 1817), the town house of tibe Khrushchevs on Kropotkin Street (architect A. Grigoriev, 1814), the building of the Opekunsky Soviet (Board of Guardians) on Solyanka (architect D. Gilliardi, 1826), the Nieskuchnoye house on Leninsky Prospekt (architect E. Tyurin, 1830s), ani many others.

From the middle of the nineteenth century Moscow's industry grew rapidly. Textiles and tanning industries had long existed in the city; now they were joined by the metalworking, food and chemical industries, which became increasingly important. The enterprises in the city grew both in number and size to become the greatest in the country. At the same time, the transport network further developed and Moscow became an important junction often railway lines.

The growth of capitalist Moscow naturally left its mark on the city's appearance and on the organization of public services and amenities. By the second half of the nineteenth century the south and south-eastern districts of the city, including Zamoskvorechie, Taganka and Zemlyanka, were clearly becoming mercantile areas. As industrial enterprises appeared, the workers' districts which sprang up near them frequently lacked amenities: the streets were poorly lit and unpaved; the houses and bairack-like hostels for the workers were built of wood.

In that period a considerable number of detached houses and five to six-storey houses were built in the central part of the city. As a rule they had few architectural merits. The principal distinguishing mark of architecture in this period was an eclectic approach. This holds true for the Polytechnical Museum, the Town Council building, the History Museum, the Upper Rows of Market Stalls (GUM), and several other buildings erected at this time. The cobble stones of some of the city's streets were replaced by asphalt and wooden blocks, metal bridges replaced wooden ones, and street lighting was improved. In 1872, the first horsedrawn trams (konka) appeared in the streets of Moscow, only to be ousted by electric trams at the turn of the century.

The administration of the city was concentrated in the hands of the Town Council, which was elected only by representatives of the propertied strata of the population. But the Town Council had little say in town planning and the organization of public services and amenities, for the main questions affecting life in the city were decided by the governor.

By the beginning of the twentieth century no more than three per cent of Moscow's houses had three or more floors, and public services and amenities were very poor. Only about twenty kilometres of the street network were lit by electricity. Any attempt to improve the streets was opposed by the houseowners, who pursued their own mercenary ends.

The Great October Socialist Revolution opened up a new stage in the history of Moscow. In March 1918, Moscow became the capital of the young Soviet Republic.

The economic dislocation in the country also applied to Moscow: many enterprises had ceased to operate; transport was extremely erratic, and the water supply completely disrupted. Housing had fallen into neglect. At that time, the population of Moscow numbered 1,854,000. All the measures to revive the city's

industry and economy were taken by the Town Council. The water supply was restored and the tramlines repaired, and in 1924 bus services began. Housing, schools and hospitalsTwere rapidly repaired. By 1925 the city's economy had reached its prewar level. A number of districts in Moscow were provided with water supplies and a sewage system for the first time. In 1926 the building of new living accommodation began in the capital. Five-storied blocks of flats were built primarily in the workers' districts, like Dangauerovka, Rogozhsky settlement, Usachevka, the 1905 Settlement, Shabolovka.

An important event for Soviet Moscow was the approval on July 10,1935, by the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party and the Soviet government, of a master plan for the reconstruction of Moscow. According to this plan, the city's area was to increase from 28,500 to 60,000 hectares. All the city's main thoroughfares were to undergo drastic reconstruction. The demolition of old, dilapidated buildings of little value began, and in their place multistorey blocks of flats and offices were erected. It was first and foremost the centre of Moscow that was subjected to radical changes. New buildings mushroomed on Okhotny Ryad (now Prospekt Marxa) and on Tverskaya Street (Gorky Street), which were widened from 18 to 60 metres and lined with modern, multistorey blocks of flats. The appearance of the radial thoroughfares - the Kaluga, Leningrad and Mozhaisk highways, the Chaussee Entuzias-tov, and Novoslobodskaya Street - was considerably changed. The reconstruction of the Sadovoye Koltso (the Garden Ring Road), one of the city's most important arteries, began. In accordance with the master plan, there was a small amount of housing construction in the central part of the city and on the reconstructed streets.

A special feature of the 1935 master plan was that it sought to satisfy the city's needs in the most rational way. At the same time as housing construction was under way, schools, clubs, hospitals and child-care establishments were being built. In the 1935 plan great attention was paid to solving the transport problems. The first trolley-bus appeared in Moscow in 1938, and the first line of the Moscow metropolitan (underground) from Sokolniki to the Gorky Park of Culture and Recreation was opened in 1935. At present, the Moscow Metro has 164.5 kilometres of lines and 103 stations, many of which are 'of architectural interest (Ploshchad Sverdlova, Mayakovskaya, Komsomolskaya Lermontovskaya, Kropotkinskaya and others). To solve the acute problem of water supplies for the vastly growing city, the 128 – kilometer – long Moskva Canal was built in the shortest possible time, just four years and three months. The Canal linked the river Moskva with the Volga and also solved the problem of water transport on the river Moskva. In 1937 – 38, new bridges were built across the river Moskva and the Vodootvodny Canal.

After the Great Patriotic War (1941 – 45), the construction of housing, and cultural, welfare and service premises developed on a new scale. To begin with,

it was continued in those areas where building had been interrupted by the war, and then it was concentrated in the former suburbs of the city.

In 1960, five towns which formerly lay in the Moscow region became part of Moscow city: Babushkin, Tushino, Lyublino, Perovo and Kuntsevo.

The intensive housing construction is still continuing. Every year about 100,000 – 110,000 new flats are built for the inhabitants of Moscow. Many new districts have emerged in the city with five, nine, 12,16, and 25-storied blocks of flats, for instance Khoroshevo-Mnevniki, Fili-Mazilovo, Izmailovo, Tekstilshchiki, Kuzminki, Medvedkovo, Sviblovo, Pechatniki, Tyoply Stan, Biryulovo and others.

A number of buildings that have made Moscow more attractive in the postwar period should be mentioned. These include the Kremlin Palace of Congresses, the Sports Complex in Luzhniki, the CMEA building, and the office buildings on Kalinin Prospekt. At the same time, the reconstruction of the old part of Moscow, within the Sadovoye Koltso, has continued. Dilapidated buildings of little architectural value from former epochs have been pulled down, and in most cases new boulevards and public gardens have replaced them.

From 1960 to 1970 new bridges were built across the river Moskva. These are the Kalinin bridge, the Avto-zavodsky bridge and the two-tiered bridges in Luzhniki and Nagatino, which carry both road transport and the Metro.

In the Decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU and of the Council of Ministers of the U.S.S.R. on the "Master Plan for the Development of Moscow" (1971) it states that the reconstruction and development of the town centre within the Sadovoye Koltso is planned. The Kremlin is to continue to hold the most important place in the architectural ensemble of the centre of the city, and the development of the centrarpartfof the city and part of the banks of the river Moskva is also planned. Cultural, educational, public and political premises will be retained in the centre, and the remaining part of Greater Moscow is to be divided up into seven individual planning zones.

The planning of the old part of the town is to remain the same as it was in the past. By a decision of Moscow Council in 1976, new building in this area of Moscow is to be restricted and nine zones are to be created where the buildings are to be preserved, including Kirov Street, B. Khmelnitsky Street, Chernyshevsky Street, Kropotkin Street, and Bolshaya Ordynka Street.

Much is being done to preserve and restore many monuments of architecture, history and culture. Five hundred and seventy-three monuments of architecture (1,673 individual buildings) are protected by the state. A special inspectorate for the preservation of architectural monuments of the Central Architecture and Planning Administration of Moscow, and the Central Cultural Administration of the Executive Committee of Moscow City Council are in charge of the registration, preservation, restoration and use of architectural monuments. Hundreds of different architectural monuments have been restored in the capital

in the past 20-25 years. The Kremlin buildings are under constant observation, and restoration of the walls and towers of the Kremlin was completed not long ago. Numerous monuments from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries have been restored. Attention is constantly given to memorial monuments of outstanding Russian writers, poets, composep ajid artists.

The Russia takes an active part in preserving and using architectural monuments to the best advantage.

Wien

Vienna, the capital of Austria, lies near the north-eastern spur of the Alps, at the foot of the Vienna Woods, 151 – 542 metres above sea level, on the banks of the River Danube. Its geographic position is latitude 48°12' north and longitude 16°22' east. The area is 414 sq.km. and the population 1,543,100 (2003) excluding the satellite towns.

The history of Vienna begins in the ist century AD, when the Romans founded a military camp called Vin – dobona, one of a chain of fortified positions. The camp was bounded to the north – east by a steep slope descending towards the Danube, to the north – west by the Ottak – ring brook (now Tiefer Graben), to the south – east by ramparts along the line of the present – day Rotgasse and Kramergasse, and on the south – west by the Graben and Naglergasse. About the same time a civilian Roman town grew up in the area of today's 3rd District, which became a free city (municipium) in 213 AD. In the 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana still figured on a Roman map. It is mentioned for the last time in the Notitia dignitatum of 400 AD, after which the Romans abandoned the camp and the town was destroyed by fire. Only fragments remain from Roman times, but the main outlines of the legionary camp are still clearly discernible.

Chronicles and documents that refer to the area seldom mention the Great Migrations and few archaeological funds have been made from that period. In his Getica (550 AD) Jordanes refers to a civitas Vindomina; a 6th century cemetery and some 7th century coins were found in Salvatorgasse; the Salzburg Annals of 881 contain the first documentary evidence of a battle against the Hungarians (Primwn bellwn cum Ungaris ad Weniam). This documentary evidence and archaeological discoveries in the Berghof area of the ist District would lead one to assume that these were only remaining settlements on the site of the former military camp, whose walls were still standing in parts. In the middle of the 11th century, when the mixed Slavic-Avar and Hungarian population of the area between the Vienna Woods and the River Leitha were being absorbed into the German kingdom, Vienna must have had considerable importance as a defence position and a centre of legislation and trade. Within the central area of today's Vienna three phases of development can be discerned: 1. Within the walls of the Roman camp settlement nuclei were formed and systematically developed in the 7th – 9th centuries; 2. Outside the Roman camp, at road junctions and along main highways further settlements developed