1523

Deliberate town planning began in the second decade of the 18th century. The wide thoroughfare Unter den Linden, formerly bordered by shabby – looking houses, was rebuilt in an impressive manner. The development of the city's industry was favourably influenced by the arrival of Huguenots from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. They settled in and around Berlin in large numbers and many new buildings appeared to house their businesses.

While the factories set up towards the end of the 17th century first confined themselves almost exclusively to supplying the army, the government and the court, later they gradually developed into industrial undertakings catering also to the general public. Through them the crafts of the Age of Absolutism attained higher standards that from the end of the 18th century greatly promoted the prosperity of the city's artisans. Workshops were established hi the eastern and northern areas of the city. By the end of the 18th century Berlin had a population of 172,000 and was the leading industrial city of Prussia.

At the same time, it was artistic development rather than systematic extension of the city that dominated town planning. From the end of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century Berlin's architecture was typified by Classicist and Neoclassical styles. This development is associated with the names of the architect K. G. Langhaus, and of G. Schadow, the sculptor mentioned above. The persistence of late Baroque can also be observed in Gontard's design of the Oranienburger Tor, (Gate), the Hamburger Tor and Rosenthaler Tor (architect: Unger). In the persons of Gentz and Carl Friedrich Schinkel a new generation of Classicist architects appeared on the scene. The municipal statutes of 1808 brought important administrative changes. The city councillors, elected from a new franchise, were granted far-reaching powers over local affairs, and in certain cases the city corporation was empowered to act on behalf of the state.

During the Napoleonic Wars building came to a standstill in Berlin. After the liberation of the city the Neue Wache (New Watchhouse; 1819 – 21. Schinkel marked the beginning of a period of activity. The building was to form part of an already existing complex, with the Opera and the Brandenburg Gate. Schinkel is also associated with the transition from Neo – Gothic to Classicism. From the point of view of town planning the Altes Museum and the Schauspielhaus (Theatre) were given great prominence. Schinkel found new forms worthy of ipth century architecture which transcended the bounds of Classicism. An example was his Bau-akademie (Academy of Architecture, 1832 – 36) destroyed in the Second World War. A fine example of surviving Classicism is the Singakademie (1825 – 27,) which today houses the Maxim Gorky Theatre.

During the European revolutions of 1848 Berlin also saw barricade-fighting. Though the bourgeois revolution fell, owing to the capitalist development of industry, Germany became one of the strongest industrial powers of the world. The one – time Prussian royal seat grew into the capital of the German Reich. This could be seen on the outward appearance of the town as well: it became an

imperial, military centre. The inner city was characterized by the concentration of functional municipal buildings and dense population. New premises were added to the Berlin machine, electric and chemical factories, where the majority of the population was given employment. The development of infrastructural units serving industry and administration furthered modern urbanization.

The appearance of old Berlin was crowned by the creations of Schinkel. In 1861 the city's area was extended by 2,410 ha, some of the annexed areas (NeuMoabit, Wedding, Tiergarten and Hasenheide) becoming working-class developments for those who had till then lived in extremely squalid conditions.

New types of construction enterprise also emerged as early as the mid-19th century: corporate bodies, joint stock companies and the city's own administration were especially active in commissioning new large buildings. Besides industrial, trade, credit establishments and railway construction several public buildings were erected. The city magistracy of Berlin built the Rotes Rathaus (Red Council Hall, 1861 – 9 and the Stadthaus (City Hall; 1902 – 11). Other public buildings of the period were the Nationalgalerie (National Gallery; 1867 – 76), the Bode Museum (1897 – 1904), the Pergamon Museum (1909 – 30), the Dom (Cathedral; 1894 – 1904) and the Neuer Marstall (New Stables; 1869 – 1902).

However, crowded, ill – lit and ill – ventilated tenements to house the steadily growing number of manual workers also became a characteristic of the Berlin townscape. During the reign of Kaiser Wilhelm, Berlin's population doubled, reading 1,578,000 in 1890. Rapid increase continued in the following two decades. By 1912 the population was 2,095,000.

The Berlin of 1918 – 19 was the capital of revolutions. After the fall of the House of Hohenzollern, the Weimar Republic guaranteed democracy. The city centre was characterized by the concentration of functional municipal buildings and dense population.

In 1920 eight towns, among them Charlottenburg, Wilmersdorf, Köpenick and Spandau, 59 villages and 27 large independently administered areas were merged into Greater Berlin (Einheitsgemeinde Berlin).

The territories united as Greater Berlin maintained their suburban characteristics for the following couple of decades, giving a peculiar atmosphere to the metropolis. The oldest historical town centre is situated on the territory of the GDR. 55 percent of the territory of Greater Berlin of 1920 today is part of West Berlin.

Greater Berlin was divided into 20 administrative districts. Of the former 20 districts, 8 make up die capital of the GDR today, 12 West Berlin. The population was 4 million in 1925, which made it the third largest city in the world after London and New York. Economic life continued to be concentrated here in the 20th century, especially after the First World War. This meant that 80% of German capital was concentrated here, as well as the majority of

German workers. As a consequence of this economic development, Berlin also became the center of scientific and cultural life and pioneered several modern trends in town planning.

In the metropolis that had developed in the shape of concentric circles around the historical inner city, 8 almost independent city centres developed. As a result, the Bauhaus, too, was able to exert its influence in the planning of new power plants, residential districts, business and cultural centres. The simple forms and new building materials such as concrete and steel, and the development of green belts around residential districts, dissolved the rigidity of the William era. Siemensstadt and the Friedrich Ebert Siedlung were typical housing estates of the time; the Gewerkschaftshaus, Buchdruckereihaus and other tall buildings, on Alexanderplatz, all destroyed during the war, were its best achievements.

When National Socialism turned Berlin into a military centre, gigantic architectural forms began to dominate the city-scape.

During the Second World War most of the capital's historic buildings were reduced to rubble. Of its 226 bridges, 128 were destroyed. Of the 1,562,000 homes only 370,000 remained habitable.

The inner districts, among them the Mitte (Centre), which included the historic centre of the city, suffered the severest damage.

The Soviet army liberated Berlin from Nazism on May 2,1945. The city lay in ruins, covered by 70m cu.m. of rubble. Life gradually returned to normal. In July 1945, in line with the treaty concluded by the Allies, American, British and French troops occupied its western districts. Berlin was divided into four zones and became the headquarters of the Allied Control Commission and Allied Military Command. Thereafter Berlin became a practically independent city. (The independent status of West Berlin is governed by the four-party convention signed by the Soviet Union. Great Britain, the United States and France in 1971. On November 30, 1948, a democratic Berlin magistracy was formed under the leadership of Friedrich Ebert as Chief Bürgermeister (Mayor). On October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was established with Berlin as its capital. Since 1949 there have been two cities in the former Berlin area: Berlin, the Capital of the GDR, (1,106,200 inhabitants), and West Berlin (2,004,300 inhabitants).

The reconstruction of the capital of the GDR, involving the methodical formation of an essentially new, socialist city, began under extremely adverse conditions caused by the heavy war damage and amidst great economic difficulties and political conflicts. However, nationalization of building land put an end to speculative jerry – building and created favourable conditions for achieving what was required. Top priority was given to applying modern urban building standards, so as to satisfy the needs of the working population. Special attention was devoted to the reconstruction and preservation of historic

buildings. An example was the reconstruction of the architectural treasures along Unter den Linden such as the former Zeughaus (today the Museum für Deutsche Geschichte-Museum of German History), the Staatsoper, the Kommode, the Palais Unter den Linden and the University.

On August 13, 1961, by virtue of a government resolution of the Warsaw Treaty countries, the boundary between the GDR and West Berlin was placed under control along its full length. An impressive city centre based on modern town-planning principles sprang up around Alexanderplatz.

Bern

Bern lies in the valley of the River Aare, on the Central Plain of Switzerland between the Alps and the Jura, at latitude 46°57' north and longitude 7°25' east. The central railway station is 540 m above sea level. Roads from Zurich, Biel and Neuchatel, Geneva and Lausanne, and Thun and the Bernese Alps meet at Bern, as do the railway lines between Lakes Constance and Geneva, and between northern Switzerland, Lotschberg and Italy. Bern has an administrative area of 51.5 sq.km. and a population (in 2003) of 121,900.

As an autonomous city within the Swiss Confederation, Bern has been the seat of the Federal Government, the Federal Parliament and the majority of the federal administrative institutions since 1848. At the same time it is the capital of Bern Canton and the seat of the cantonal administration, parliament and administrative offices. The city's cultural and economic significance has left its mark on its outward appearance.

There is ample evidence that the site of the present city and its surroundings was inhabited in prehistoric and ancient times by Celts (Helvetians), Romans, and Germans (Alemannians). Although the earliest remains found on the peninsula – formed by a bend in the River Aare where the Old City now stands-have been Roman coins, further north on the Enge peninsula a large Celtic settlement has been excavated, along with a Roman roadside settlement and a Galio – Roman church. These settlements are believed to have lasted until the end of the 4th century.

In the immediate vicinity of the city, the remains of - Roman villas and several 7th century Germanic cemeteries have been discovered.

In the early Middle Ages a number of detached homesteads, farms and small villages existed on the site of the present city. Till AD 843 the area was part of the Frankish Empire. It then belonged to the Kingdom of Burgundy, till it was annexed to the Holy Roman Empire in 1032. In 1127 Emperor Lothair appointed Prince Conrad of Zahringen as Regent of Burgundy.

Historians differ over the date and circumstances of the city's foundation. According to the old chronicles, Prince Berthold V of Zahringen built the city between Nydegg Fortress and the Clock Tower in 1191; it is, however, more probable that Berthold IV established a fortified village between Nydegg Fortress and Kreuz-gasse around 1155-60, and that his son Berthold V extended it as far as the Clock Tower.

It may be assumed that a small open riverside settlement, probably with a ferry, developed at the midpoint of the bend in the River Aare at an early date. The imperial Fortress of Nydegg, built on the surmounting rocks in the nth or 12th century, was a stronghold of the Zahringers and designed to protect the ferry. Around 1160 the village extended from the hollow west of the fortress to the line of the present Kreuzgasse. Of the original town wall only one section, 28 m long and 150 cm thick, has survived. It now forms the western facade of the Town Hall, which was built in 1406. Remains excavated in 1940 – 42 may have belonged to the walls of the town ditch. No trace of the ancient town gate has been found so far. The nth century settlement was 270 m long and 180 m wide. Its broad main street (today's Gerechtigkeitsgasse) curves slightly to the right and rises gently towards the west. It is flanked by two parallel streets, each narrower by about a third than the main street. The area for development was divided into lots measuring 17.6 m by 29.3 m. This plot pattern has remained unchanged to this day.

Around 1191 the city was extended westwards by 350 m and both the main street and side streets were lengthened. On the western side the city was flanked by a double wall that ran along a natural ditch, with a gatehouse and a still extant clock tower. The area thus enclosed is now called Zahringerstadt.

The first written document to mention Bern by name dates from 1208. The etymology of the name Bern is still in doubt. While tradition ascribes it to the heraldic bear that features on the city crest, others claim that Bern is the German form of Verona and was used because the Zahringen princes had close family ties with the sovereigns of Verona. However, the name may as well have a Celtic or Latin origin.

The last of the Zahringers, Bcrthold V, died in 1218, when the city again became part of the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Frederick II conferred upon it important privileges, notably self-government, independent jurisdiction and the right to hold markets.

During the period that followed (1254 – 73), in the absence of an emperor, the city allied itself with Savoy, thus incurring the wrath of the Kyburgs and Habsburgs. With the help and patronage of monasteries, alliances with cities and communities in the valleys and the purchase and redemption of bonds, the city gradually increased its territory and influence.

Around 1256 Bern was extended westwards by a further 300 m as far as the next natural depression. 7'here a town wall with a new gate was built, where the Prison Tower now stands. This tower served as a prison until 1897, then as a storage room of the State Archives. In 1977 – 1979 it was converted into a cultural centre The area added to the city in 1256 is called Savoyerstadt in memory of Count Peter of Savoy, under whose protection it stood.

Around the same time Nydegg Fortress was demolished and the first wooden bridge was built where today's Untertor Bridge stands. The Nydegg

site was then incorporated in the city's defence systems. In 1339 Bern won a victory near Laupen over the neighbouring city of Fribourg and the nobility allied with it. In 1353 it concluded an everlasting alliance with the founder cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, and following Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus and Zug, entered the Confederation as its eighth canton.

A further 300 m of territory were added to the city around 1345. Its extended main axis (today's Spitalgasse) ended at the Christopher Tower, since demolished. The city grew beyond the small peninsula of the Aare, and its sidestreets also increased in number.

In 1405 the city was almost completely destroyed by fire, but the wooden houses of the burgesses were soon replaced by stone houses. In 1415 the Bernese occupied Aargau, and from this time onwards the young republic concentrated its policies on the west. Its good relations with France involved it in a war with the troops of Charles the Bold, who was in league with the Habsburgs. It ended with victories for Bern at Grandson and Murtcn in 1476 and near Nancy in 1477, which enhanced the canton's significance and power in Europe.

The participation in the Italian campaign conducted by the cantons and the service of their troops in foreign armies led to a certain demoralization of the population and abuses in the Church. Therefore the ideas of Huldrych Zwingli, the Zurich reformer, attracted numerous followers, so that in 1528 the new belief became the established religion of the city. The expropriation of ecclesiastical estates added to the wealth and territory of the Bernese Republic, which reached its greatest extent after the occupation of Waadt in 1536.

During the 15th century the defences of the city were further developed. From the system of strongholds built between 1458 and 1473 a section of wall in Hodlerstrasse, near the Museum of Fine Arts, and east of this a structure known as the Blood Tower on the River Aare still remain. The Town Hall (by Heinrich von Gengenbach and Hans Hetzel) was built in 1406-17 and later rebuilt on several occasions; in 1939 – 42 its ground-floor hall w?s restored to its original form. The Cathedral (by Matthaus Ensinger) was begun in 1421; the frontal tower left unfinished in 1596 was completed in 1889 – 93; the sculptures of the main door were created by Erbardt Kiing in 1490 – 95. Apart from the Dominican Monastery, Antonitc House, the former church of the hospital order of the Antonites, is the only surviving monastic church in the city. Built between 1492 and 1505, it was later used as granary and a mail coach house; it was renovated and altered in 1939 – 40.

Nydegg Church was erected on the foundations of the Nydegg Fortress, which had been demolished in 1260 – 70. The chancel dates from 1341 – 6, the bell tower from 1480 and the main aisle from 1494 – 1500. The church was completely restored under the city's preservation programme in 1951 – 3.

Most of the fountains that still typify the city date from the 16th century, and are partly or fully attributed to the sculptor Hans Gieng. Zahringer Fountain, decorated with a statue of a bear in armour, was erected in 1535 by Hans Hiltprand.

During the Thirty Years' War the authorities built a rampart and ditch system (1622 – 34) in front of the town wall. A new gate, called the Obertor, now no longer extant, lay on the western side.

In 1653 the unfavourable economic consequences of the Thirty Years' War and the privileges enjoyed by the nobility at the expense of the impoverished peasantry provoked a peasant revolt that was brutally put down. The revolutionary attempts of the 18th century were likewise thwarted.

During the 17th and 18th centuries several important buildings were erected in the city. The Kornhaus (granary) was built by Jakob Diinz (1667 – 1742) and Samuel Baumgartner in 1711 – 18 and rebuilt at the end of the 19th century. Restoration of the facade began in 1975; today it houses a museum and an underground restaurant.

The Town Hall of the 'Ausserer Stand' was built to the plans of Albrecht Stiirler in 1728 – 30, as the seat of a "mock parliament" of young patricians.

The construction of Erlacherhof, designed by Albrecht Sturlcr (1705 – 1748) for Hieronymus von Erlach, began about 1746, and was completed according to a modified plan (probably by J. A. Nahl) in 1752. In 1832 it was handed over to the municipal government and from 1848 to 1858 was the seat of the Federal Council. The building is one of the most highly decorated patrician houses in the city. Its facade was restored in 1975 – 79.

The French Church belonging to the city's oldest monastery, founded by the Dominican order in 1269, was built between 1270 and 1285. Its western front and the facade of the south aisle were built by Abraham Wild in 1753 – 4. Both were renovated in 1968.

The Chapter House, dating from 1745 – 55, was erected according to designs of Albrecht Sturlcr on the site of a building formerly owned by the Teutonic Order. It is an outstanding piece of architecture and an important element in the townscape. Since 1803 the building has been the seat of the cantonal administration. It was renovated in 1928 – 9 and 1979 – 80.

The present City and University Library was built as a granary in 1755 – 60 (Ludwig Emanuel Zehender, 1687 – 1757). It was extended in the 19th century and renovated in 1969 – 73.

The Main Guard House (by Niklaus Sprtingli) was erected for the guard corps in 1766 – 68. From 1832 to 1910 it served as Police Headquarters. It was partly restored in 1938.

Under the influence of the French Revolution social unrest spread among the population of the cantons, and the government itself split into two factions. French troops invading Swiss territory found little resistance, and

even the victory gained by the Bernese near Neuenegg on March 5, 1798, failed to counteract the defeat they suffered near Grauholz on the same day. The French army occupied and ransacked the city.

France forced Switzerland to accept a new constitution which transformed the confederation into a unified Helvetian Republic. As a result Bern lost the territories of Waadt and Aargau. But after the failure of the new political initiatives Napoleon in 1803 introduced an Act of Mediation, establishing a federal state of 19 cantons. A division of lands was made between the Canton and the City of Bern, after which they were administered separately. Following the 'Battle of the Nations' (1813) the Bern Act of Mediation was repealed and attempts made to revive the old republic. However, under the new federal constitution introduced in 1815, the city and state administration were insufficiently separated.

Till the 19th century, the layout of the city adopted in the 17th century underwent no significant change. When the increase in population brought the need for new housing the Bernese set about demolishing the western fortifications. The last remnant of the city's defence system, the Christopher Tower, was pulled down in 1865.

The revolution in France in July 1830 increased unrest in Bern, and the patrician leaders resigned. The new liberal constitution of 1831 was accepted despite the resistance of the conservatives. It abolished the priority of the city over the county and ensured the sovereignty of the people. The constitution of 1846 and the still valid state constitution of 1893 brought the people further democratic rights.

In 1832 a cantonal order was issued for the establishment of communities, and the administrative structure acquired then by the city of Bern hardly differed from that of other communities in the country.

The federal constitution of 1848 transformed the federation of 22 cantons into a federal state, and on November 28 of the same year the newly established Federal Assembly appointed Bern as capital. The city committed itself to making available and maintaining free of charge the premises required by the political authorities and bodies of the Confederation. That was a considerable burden on a comparatively small population, and in 1875 Bern redeemed this obligation.

The administrative and economic development of Bern as the capital of the Confederation was well balanced. The buildings required for the government and administration were completed. Modern bridges were built over the River Aare to allow development of new housing on the right bank. The city became linked with the Swiss railway network in 1858, which improved communications and stimulated the economy. In 1844 Untertor Bridge, which had become far too narrow for the volume of traffic, was superseded by Nydegg Bridge, and thus the territory east of the Aare peninsula was opened up. Kirchenfcld

Bridge, built in 1883, led to the systematic development of the area south of the old city centre, while Kornhaus Bridge (1898) led to the building of new housing estates on the northern area which till then had only been occupied by scattered villas and cottages. The growth in th.e population and electorate had its effect on the administration of the city. An 1887 municipal by-law abolished the municipal assembly and introduced elections and voting by ballot instead. The municipal assembly was replaced by a city council which acted as a parliament. A municipal council was established as executive body, headed by the mayor.

The second half of the 19th century was a period of rapid growth in the city's area. The suburbs were gradually merged into a single community that still regards the old town as its social and economic centre. Industrialization brought factories to former suburbs especially along the railway lines leading to the city, but no major industrial district developed.

One of the most important 19th century building complexes is the Houses of Parliament. The west wing was designed by Ferdinand Stadler and erected by Friedrich Studer in 1851 – 57. The east wing (1888 – 1892) and Parliament building (1894 – 1902), the seat of the Federal Council and Federal Assembly, are the work of Hans Wilhelm Auer. During the same century the fountains were further embellished, and some of the plinths and basins added.

In the 20th century unification with the neighbouring village of Biimpliz, west of Bern, in 1918, added further to the city's area.

The latest full revision of the municipal regulations (basic statutes) took place in 1903. The growing tasks facing the community were considered and a system of 'facultative financial referendum' was introduced, under which financial measures proposed by the municipal authorities are decided upon by plebiscite if a certain aumber of citizens so require.

Bern and the surrounding communities formed a country planning association in 1963, which functions for the time being under civil law. It unites about twenty communities which jointly tackle problems of traffic, water supply, sewage and refuse disposal.

The layout of the city at the time of its foundation, the long-sighted planning of its street system and the regularly arranged building lots are indications of official control. A document from 1310 refers to four 'building magistrates' responsible to the Council and the Judge. Their duties included the drafting of building regulations and the control of their implementation.

The organization and jurisdiction of the Building Office thus formed can be traced through the various by-laws issued down the centuries. Since the reform of 1694, the office has been directed by a single Chief Architect who is concurrently a member of the Lower Council. There are three master craftsmen assigned to him: one responsible for woodwork, one for stone structures, and a third for the Cathedral. In addition to directing the work of their skilled