Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Diagnosis, Management, and Control

Incidence, 35, 58

of BVDV infections, 47–49

epidemiological studies for estimation of, 47–49 prevalence and, 49

Incidence rate, 47 Incidence risk, 47, 48

Incubation periods, for acute BVD, 115 Indirect fluorescence microscopy, 189 Indirect immunofluorescence assay, 200 Indirect immunoperoxidase, 200

INF. See Interferon

Infected animals, BVDV transmission from, 96–98 Infection status, 49

Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, 6, 10, 54, 125 Infectious cDNA clones, 17

Infectiousness of infected animals, reducing coefficient of, 101

Infertility, 148

Innate immune response, to BVDV, 157–158 Insect transmission of BVDV, 95–96 Insemination

transmission via semen and, 94–95 uterine exposure to BVDV at, 127–128

Interference test, 8 Interferon, 187

cytopathic BVDV and production of, 23 innate immune response and, 158

role of, during pregnancy, 151 Interferon regulatory factor-3, 188 Inter-herd transmission, 101

Internal ribosome entry site, 68, 82, 181, 182 International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses,

Seventh Report of, 71 International Embryo Transfer Society, 16 Inter-species transmission, 105

Intestinal mucosa, mucosal disease and infection of, 135 Intracellular signaling inhibition, 187–188

Intra-herd transmission, 100–101

Intrauterine exposure, virus persistence after, 130 Intrauterine infections, 5. See also Transplacental/in-

trauterine infections

In utero transmission, after 120–150 days of gestation, 93, 94

In vitro fertilization, BVDV and, 113

IPMA. See Immunoperoxidase monolayer assay Iqbal, M., 179

IRES. See Internal ribosome entry site IRF-3. See Interferon regulatory factor-3

Isolation hutches, minimizing BVDV transmission and, 101

i-VVNADL, 23

Japanese MLV BVDV vaccine, protection by, 217 Jensen, A.M., 10

JNK1, 188

JNK2, 188

Johne’s disease, 110 Jordan, R., 184

Kafi, M., 113

Kahrs, R.F., 6 Kerkhofs, P., 203

Killed vaccines, 13, 209, 212–213 efficacy of, in experimental studies, 152 requirements for efficacy of, 210

strains and types of bovine viral diarrhea virus in, 215 Kirkland, P.D., 10

Kirkpatrick, J., 213

Kozak consensus sequence, 181 Kümmerer, B.M., 17

Kunjin virus, 189

Label claims, for vaccine products, 210, 211 Laboratory evaluation, use of, in evaluating moribund

and dead calves, 228–229 Lambert, G., 8

Lambs, 151

Lamina propria, lesions and, 134, 135 Laminitis, 5

Langedijk, J.P.M., 187, 201 Latency, of acute infections, 97

Late-onset mucosal disease, 9, 132–133 LDLR. See Low-density lipoprotein receptor Lecomte, C., 201

Leptospira hardjo, 55, 57 Leptospira spp., 210 Lesions

in brain and eyes, 129 of BVDV, 4

correlation between viral antigen and, 133 development of, in acute BVDV infection, 123–125 fetal infections and, 224

in lymphoid tissues, 133–134 in mucosa, 135

in mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues, 134–135 ovarian, 127

pathogenesis of, in mucosal disease, 133–135 Letellier, C., 203

Leukopenia, 4, 17, 113, 157, 162 Lewis, T.L., 201

Licensing of vaccines, 25 Liess, Bernd, 3, 13 Lifelong infections, 240 Light-Cycler system, 204

Lightly infected antibody carriers, 51 Lindberg, A., 204

Lipid envelope, in flativiruses, 65 Littlejohns, I.R., 13, 20

Livestock production, impact of BVDV on, 116 Llamas, 116, 173

Low-density lipoprotein receptor, 82, 178, 179, 189 Low virulence strains, 241

development of lesions and, 123–124 high virulence strains compared with, 125

Lung lesions, 126

Lymph node involvement, with BVDV, 106, 107 Lymphoid depletion, 114

254

Lymphoid follicles, 163 Lymphoid tissues

lesions in, 133–134 mucosa-associated, lesions in, 134–135

Lymphopenia, 124, 125, 126, 159, 162 “Lytic” viruses, 22

Mabs. See Monoclonal antibodies MacCallum, A.D., 4 Macrophages, 157

Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells, 6, 177, 178 Mahlum, C.E., 202

Makoschey, B., 216

Malmquist, W.A., 5 Management systems diagnostic tests

for detection of PI animals, 226–227 for identifying PI calves, 227

identification of dams carrying PI fetus, 227–228 monitoring herds for BVDV PI risk, 228–230 other potential sources of BVDV, 230–231

Mandibular brachygnathism, 150

Mannheimia haemolytica, 10, 11, 114, 115, 126, 161, 210

Mannheimia spp., 110 Markov Chain model, 58 Martin, S.W., 21 Mastitis, 53, 54 McCauley, J.W., 179

McClurkin, A.W., 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 24 McGoldrick, A., 20

MD. See Mucosal disease

MDBK cells. See Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells MEGA-10, 201

M-ELISA. See Monolayer enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Mendez, E., 17 Meyers, G., 12, 15, 17 Meyling, A., 10, 12, 49

Michigan, prevalence in, 52 Microencephaly, 129, 150, 224 Microopthalmia, 150, 224 Milk

bulk testing of, in Scandinavia, 21 BVDV transmission via, 96

yield reductions, 53 Milk samples

classes of, 203 diagnostic, 197, 203

epidemiological studies for estimation of herd level prevalence based on, 45

PCR assay for testing of, 20 Mink lung cell system, 199

Minnesota Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, 202 ML cell system. See Mink lung cell system

MLV type 1 strain (NADL), strategic vaccination and, 99 Modified live virus (MLV) vaccines, 13, 114, 171, 209,

211–212, 239

Index

BVDV transmission via, 96 biosecurity and, 233 requirements for efficacy of, 210

strains and types of BVDV in, 215 Moennig, V., 9, 16, 201

Moerman, A., 48 Molecular biology

advances in, 11–12, 17–18 classification and, 65–74

Monitoring herds for BVDV PI risk, 228–230 annual whole-herd testing, 230

pooling samples and whole blood for PCR testing, 229 production records and laboratory evaluation of mori-

bund and dead calves, 228–229

serologic evaluation of sentinel animals, 229–230 Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs), xi, 3, 11, 239

tests for, 18–19 Monocytes, 157

Monolayer enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, 200 Moormann, R.J.M., 179

Moose, 105, 116, 173

Moribund calves, use of production records and laboratory evaluations of, 228–229

Mucosa, lesions in, 135

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues, lesions in, 134–135 Mucosal disease, 3, 4, 5, 57, 74, 111–112, 121, 131–135,

157

acute/chronic sequel to CI, 108–109

age-matched beef calves from herd suffering from, 112 chronic, 113

defective interfering particles and, 84 early-onset, 132–133

experimental production of, 8–10 late-onset, 9, 15–16, 132–133 pathogenesis of, 131–132 postmortem images

of colon lesions in calves suffering from, 113 of esophageal ulcers in calf suffering from, 112 of palate of calf suffering from, 112

spontaneous and postvaccinal, 15 spread of cp BVDV in, 134

Multiplex assays, 19, 20 Mummification, 147, 241 Mummified fetuses, 128 Muñoz-Zanzi, C.A., 24, 25, 229

Musca autumnalis, 96, 231 Mycobacterium bovis, 159 Mycoplasma bovis, 22, 115, 161 Mycoplasma spp., 110 Mycotoxicosis, 110

NADC strain, 242 NADL, 14

Naive immunocompetent cattle population course of initial infection in, 105–107, 109

BVDV in colostrum-deprived calves, 106

BVDV in 6-month-old seronegative calves, 106–107 BVDV in pregnant cattle, 107, 109

Nakamura, S., 197

National Animal Disease Laboratory, 6

National eradication programs, economic evaluation of, 58

Natural BVDV infection, disease syndromes in nonbovine hosts due to, 171–172

ncp BVDV, 12, 121, 123, 160, 197 cellular immune response and, 159

intracellular signaling inhibition and, 188 molecular actions of, 22–23

pathogenesis of mucosal disease and, 131, 132 persistent infections and, 129

reproductive infections and, 151 research on, 240

vaccines and, 209, 210

NDV. See Newcastle disease virus Neonatal calves

BVDV infections in, 5 preventing BVD in, 8

Neonates, acute BVDV infection of, 110 Nested polymerase chain reaction, 202 Neutralizing antibodies, neonates and, 150 Neutropenia, 162

Neutrophils, 157 Newcastle disease virus, 23

New York, original outbreaks in, 6 New York 93 strain, 17

Ng, M.L., 189 Nitric oxide, 157 Njaa, B.L., 204

NO. See Nitric oxide Noncytopathic biotypes, 71, 72, 81

Noncytopathic BVDV. See ncp BVDV Noncytopathic viruses, 9, 10 Nonstructural protein region, 209 North America

NADL strain in, 11 subgroups of BVDV 2 in, 73

Northern Ireland, incidence risk in, 48 Norway

cattle density in, 52

cost-benefit evaluation of eradication program in, 58 economic losses in, 57

eradication programs in, 21 herd study in, 51 prevalence in, 46

NS2, 17, 69

genetic recombination and, 83 NS2-3, 12, 15, 16, 19, 69, 73 NS3

genetic recombination and, 83 Position A and Position B and, 73

NS3-encoded serine protease, 82 NS3 monoclonal antibodies, 12, 19 NS4A protein, 70

NS4B protein, 70 NS5A protein, 185, 186

NS region. See Nonstructural protein region

Nucleic acids, BVDV-specific, 25

Nuttall, P.A., 8

NY-1 strain, 14, 214, 218, 242

Nystagmus, 164

Ocular defects, 5 Oculocerebellar syndrome, 129 OD. See Optical density

Odds ratio, 50 Olafson, P., 4, 145, 162 Ontario

BVDV outbreaks in, 55 BVDV type 2 emergence in, 14

severe acute BVDV infection in cattle population in, 111

Oophoritis, 147, 148

“Open gut” phenomenon, 158

Open reading frame, 11, 65, 66, 68, 82 polyprotein translation and, 181 proteolytic processing and, 84

Open-tube RT-PCRs, 202 Opisthotonus, 129

Optical density, of indirect ELISA technique, 227–228 Optic neuritis, 150, 224

OR. See Odds ratio

Ora-nasal route of BVDV transmission, 157 Oregon (C24V) strain, 4, 6, 14, 17, 242 ORF. See Open reading frame

Oro-nasal uptake, virus spread and, 123, 124 Osloss strains, 14

Ovarian hypoplasia, 113 Ovaries

as immunologically privileged site, 163, 164 lesions in, 127

reproductive capacity and infection of, 147 Over-the-fence contact, with PI animals, 223 Oviductal cells, BVDV infection and, 148

P. haemolytica, 54

Palate of calf, mucosal disease and postmortem image of,

112

Palfi, V., 18

Passive humoral immune response, 158 Passive immunity, 105, 159

Pasteurella multocida, 161, 210 Pasteurella spp., 110

Pasturing, risk factors and, 51, 59 Pathogenesis, 121–135

acute infection, 121, 123–126 immune suppression in, 125–126

thrombocytopenia and hemorrhages in, 126 viral and host factors in, 121, 122

virus spread and lesions in, 123–125 defined, 121

of lesions in mucosal disease, 133–135

correlation between viral antigen and tissue lesions, 133

lesions in lymphoid tissues, 133–134

Pooled blood samples, 37

Pooled monoclonal antibodies, 19 Pooled samples, for diagnostic testing, 24

Pooling strategies, herd immunity and, 160 “Poor-doers,” 129

Population genetics, quasispecies and, 85 Porcine kidney cell system, 199 Porencephaly, 150

Postnatal horizontal transmission, management and control of BVDV and, 223

Postnatal infection/disease, vaccines and protection against, 214–217

Postnatal transmission, 93

Postvaccinal mucosal disease, 6, 8, 9, 13, 15 Potgieter, L.N.D., 10, 11

Prebreeding vaccination, 99

Precolostral BVDV-neutralizing antibodies, 94 Preconditioning programs, 13

Pregnancy status, 105

Pregnant cattle, BVDV in, 107, 109

Pregnant PI cows, and transmission to fetus, 96 Prenatal testing, 204, 242

Preovulatory period, infection during, 127 Present values, 56

Prevalence, 35, 58, 59

of BVDV genotypes, 72

of BVDV infections, 36–38, 46 definition of, 36

epidemiological studies for estimation of, 38 epidemiological studies for estimation of, in animals

with antibodies against BVDV, 39–42 incidence and, 49

intra-herd transmission and, 100 reducing, 101

Primary bovine embryo kidney (pBEK) cells, 199 Prins, S., 18

Pritchard, W.R., 4, 5 Probability of infection, 91, 92

Production records, use of, in evaluating moribund and dead calves, 228–229

Prolonged infections, acute, 240–241 Pronghorn antelope, 66, 173 Protective immunity, 160

Protein kinase, 186

Protein translation, virus replication and, 188 Proteolytic processing, 84

Pseudoknot structures, 82 Pulmonary hypoplasia, 107, 224 Pulmonary lesions, in lambs, 172 Putative species, pestiviruses and, 66 PV. See Present values

pvMD. See Postvaccinal mucosal disease Pyrexia, 162

Quantitative disorder, 162

Quasispecies, population genetics and, 85 Quebec

BVDV type 2 emergence in, 14

severe acute BVDV infection in cattle population in, 111

Qvist, P., 19

Rabbits, cell lines survey and, 173 Radostits, O.M., 13, 20

Radwan, G.S., 20 Rae, A.G., 18 Ramsey, F.K., 4, 131

Real rate of interest, 56 Rebhun, W.C., 11

Recovery, from acute BVDV infections, 115 Rectal transmission of BVDV, 95

Reduced milk yield, 53

Reindeer, viruses isolated from, 66 Relative risk, 50

Renshaw, R.W., 20 Repeat breeding, 53 Replication, 177

interactions with cellular factors during, 180–186 overall view of, 190

regulation of, 84–85 RNA, 184–186 viral, 71

Replicative form, of RNA, 83

Reproductive consequences, from BVDV, 113–114 Reproductive disease

impact of

gestation stage on outcome of, 147–150 host factors on outcome of, 151 vaccination on outcome of, 151–152 viral factors on outcome of, 151

ovarian infection, 147 overview of, 145

persistent infections and, 145–152 testicular infection, 145–146

Reproductive disorders, 55, 59 Reproductive effects, of BVDV, 223–224 Reproductive infections, 152

Reproductive losses, initial descriptions of, 145 Reproductive performance, impact of different BVDV

strains on, 107, 108–109 Research

BVDV, progress in, 239–240 refocusing of, 240–241

acute, prolonged infections, 240–241 low-virulence strains of BVDV, 241 noncytopathic BVDV, 240

T-cell responses, 240 Respiratory disease, 10–11, 53, 145

2000 to the present, 21–22

Respiratory tract, BVDV and damage to, 110 Retained placenta, 54

Retinal atrophy, 107, 164 Retinal degeneration, 150, 224 Revell, S.G., 10

Reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction, 113

intra-herd transmission and, 100

prolonged, following acute infection, 130–131 in semen, 146

transmission

from acutely infected animals and, 97–98 from persistently infected animals and, 96–97 via modified live virus vaccine, 96

Sheep, 116, 151

border disease virus of, 171, 198

BVDV transmission between cattle and, 231 cell lines survey and, 173

congenital infection in, 174

studies of transplacental infection of ovine fetuses with BVDV in, 172

in vaccine studies, 209 Shimizu, M., 9

“Shipping fever” pneumonia, 10 Signaling inhibition, 187–188

cytokines, 187 intracellular, 187–188

Singer strain, 8, 11, 14, 17, 242 vaccine, 13

Single-strand conformation polymorphism, 203 Single-stranded viral RNA, 83

SIR (susceptible/infectious/removed) model, 47 Skin biopsies, 24, 205

immunohistochemistry of, 198–199 staining of viral antigen in, 226

Slaughterhouse fetuses, BVDV found in, 95 Slovakia, BVDV genotypes identified in, 46

SN antibodies. See Serum neutralizing (SN) antibodies SN test. See Serum neutralization test

South America

BVDV genotypes identified in, 46 subgroups of BVDV 2 in, 73

Southern Africa, subtypes of BVDV 1 in, 22 Sp. See Specificity

Spahn, C.M.T., 182 Specific immunity, 157

Specificity, prevalence and, 36, 37 Sperm heads, in infected bulls, 10 Spinal cord, hypomyelination of, 224 Spleen, BVDV and damage to, 110, 163 Spontaneous mucosal disease, 3, 15

SSCP. See Single-strand conformation polymorphism Stable flies, BVDV transmission and, 96

ST cell system. See Swine testicle cell system Stillbirths, 8, 55, 129

Stocker operations, control programs and management of, 234–235

Stocking density, intra-herd transmission and, 100 Stocking rate, minimizing BVDV transmission and, 101

Stomoxys calcitrans, 96 Strain differentiation, 202–203

Strategic vaccination, examples of, 99 Stress, vaccine efficacy and, 242 Subcellular fractionation techniques, 189 Subclinical acute infections, 197

Subclinical infections, 53, 59, 109 Subgenotypes, 239

of BVDV 1 and BVDV 2, 73 Suckling calves, testing of, 230 Sullivan, D.G., 20, 203 Superinfections, 9

Superovulatory response, in persistently infected cows, 16

Surveillance programs, 59, 241–242 Susceptible animals

decline in, 92

reducing proportion of, 101–102 Sweden

antibody levels from bulk tank milk in, 48 bulk milk screening for BVDV in, 205

bulk tank milk samples from dairy herds in, 53 BVDV control program in, 197

eradication programs in, 21, 25, 239 self-clearance in, 46

Sweet clover poisoning, 111 Swine testicle cell system, 199 Switzerland, incidence risk in, 48

Synergism, between BVDV and enteric pathogens, 161

Tamoglia, T.W., 7

TaqMan, 20, 202

T-cell immune responses development of, 213, 214 research on, 240

T-cells, 164

Temperature monitoring, 123 Temperature-sensitive mutant virus vaccine, 13 Teratogenic effects, of BVDV, 129 Teratogenic lesions, fetal infections and, 224

Testes, as immunologically privileged site, 163, 164 Testicular infection, bull fertility and, 145–146 TGAC virus, 16

Thomson, R.G., 5

3 UTR (3 untranslated region), 81, 82 Thrombocytopenia, 11, 14, 111, 124, 126, 162, 197 Thrombocytopenic calf

excessive hemorrhage in, 111

petechiation of ocular mucous membranes in, 111 Thür, B., 24

Thymic aplasia, 224 Thymic hypoplasia, 150

Thymus, effect of BVDV on, 163 TI. See Transient infection TIA-1, 185

TIAR, 185

Tissue lesions, correlation between viral antigen and, 133

T-lymphocytes, decrease of, in acute BVDV infection, 125

Tonsils, BVDV and damage to, 110 Torticollis, 129

TP. See True prevalence TRAM, 189

Virions, pestivirus, 66

Virulence factors, role of, in acute infection, 121, 123 Virulent strains, transient infection by, in combination

with other pathogens, 54–55 Virus and host interactions, 177–190

BVDV replication cycle overview, 189–190 cell death, 186–187

with cellular factors during replication, 180–186 polyprotein translation, 181–183

processing of envelope glycoproteins and, 183–184 RNA replication, 184–186

cellular remodeling, 188–189 inhibition of signaling, 187–188

cytokines, 187

intracellular signaling inhibition, 187–188 receptor and virus attachment, 177–180

cellular factors, 177–179 viral factors, 179–180

virus release, 189

Virus isolation, 199–200, 226 diagnosis by, 17, 18

in non-bovine hosts, 172–173 in semen, 113

Virus-neutralization test, 200 Virus pair, 9

Virus release, 189 Virus replication, 81–86

cytopathology, 83–84

defective interfering particles and cytopathology, 84 5 UTR, 82

genetic recombination, 83 overview of, 81 proteolytic processing, 84

quasispecies and population genetics, 85 regulation of translation and replication, 84–85 sites, 85

3 UTR, 82 translation and, 82–83 viral genome, 81–82

genome organization, 81–82 virion assembly and exocytosis, 85 virus binding and reentry, 82

Virus shedding

in persistently infected bulls, 10 Virus transmission, 91–102

of BVDV from infected animals, 96–98 from acutely infected animals, 97–98 from persistently infected animals, 96–97

horizontal and vertical, 93–94

infectious disease epidemiology, 91–93 BVDV transmission factors, 91–92 effect of vaccination on transmission, 92

transmission under influence of herd immunity, 92–93

inter-herd, 101 intra-herd, 100–101

minimizing BVDV transmission, 101–102 reducing coefficient of infectiousness, 101 reducing duration of prevalence of infectious

animals, 101

reducing likelihood of adequate contact, 101 reducing proportion of susceptible animals,

101–102 overview of, 91 prevention of

by colostral antibodies, 98 by vaccination, 98–100

routes and means of BVDV transmission, 94–96 via embryo transfer, 95

iatrogenic, fomite, environmental, and insect, 95–96 via milk and colostrum, 96

via modified live virus vaccine, 96 via semen, 94–95

transrectal transmission, 95 VN. See Virus-neutralization test Voges, H., 16, 17

VP1, 71

VP2, 71

Washing procedures, embryo transfer and, 231 Wasting disease, 157

Weak-born calves, 55, 59

Weaning, mortality of PI calves prior to, 224 Weinstock, D., 24, 201, 202

Wentink, G.H., 16 Westenbrink, F., 9, 15 West Nile virus, 189

White blood cell disorders, 162 Whitmore, H.L., 10 Whole-herd testing, 227

annual, 230 Wildlife

BVDV transmission and, 231 pestiviruses and, 14

Winter dysentery, 110

World Organization for Animal Health, 17

Zona pellucida, BVDV infection and, 149