Modern history of kazakhstan The content of lectures

Introduction

The history of Kazakhstan describes the human past in the Eurasia's largest segment of the steppe belt that was the home and crossroads for numerous human groups starting with extinct Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus 1 mln – 800,000 in the Karatau Mountains, Caspian and Balkhash areas; Neanderthals 140 – 40 thousand years ago in the Karatau Mountains and Central Kazakhstan, and the arrival of the modern Homo Sapiens 40 – 12 thousand years ago in the Southern, Central, and Eastern Kazakhstan. After the end of the Last glacial period, 12.5 – 5 thousand years ago campsites spread across the whole of Kazakhstan, eventually leading to extinction of large animals (mammoth, woolly rhinoceros). The hunter-gatherer communes invented bow and boats, and used domesticated wolf and traps for hunting, developed Atbasar archeological culture. Around 5 thousand years ago in the process of Neolithic Revolution appeared animal husbandry and agriculture, which formed the Atbasar, Kelteminar, Botai, Mokanjar, Ust-Narym, and other archeological cultures. The Botai culture (3600–3100 BCE) is credited with the first domestication of horses. In the course of the Neolithic Revolution. ceramics and polished stone tools appeared, found spread across Kazakhstan steppes, river valleys, and mountains. The 4th – 3rd millenniums witnessed the beginning of metal production, manufacture of copper tools, and use of casting molds. Up to 100 sites were found with copper casting shops. In the 2nd millennium, ore mining developed in Central Kazakhstan, pastoral animal husbandry appeared and spread, and horse nomadic economy became a developed technology as a viable production method in the Eurasian steppes. The change of climatic conditions forced massive relocations of populations in and out of the steppe belt. The aridization period that lasted for a millennium from the end of the 2nd millennium to the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE caused depopulation of the arid belts and river valley oasis areas, their population moved north to the forest-steppe zone. New populations migrated in with the end of the arid period in the beginning of the 1st millennia BCE, repopulating abandoned areas by inflows from the west and from the east, creating symbiotic societies that started forming in the 7th century BCE. In the 3rd c. BCE the arising Hunnic Empire covered the whole of Kazakhstan among its territories, starting the Kazakhstan historical period. Soon after its creation,the Hunnic Empire absorbed 26 independent possessions, uniting various steppe and forest peoples into a single state. After the demise of the Eastern Hunnic Empire, the Tele people of Kazakhstan, known in Chinese annals as Tiele, formed tribal unions that became a coveted attraction for the Hunnic successors, but they generally retained independence of their unions. In the 6th c. CE the people of Kazakhstan were again absorbed into the new political state, the Turkic Kaganate, that controlled approximately the same area as the Eastern Hunnic Empire. Subsequently, large portions of Kazakhstan were ruled in sequence by the Uigur and Kirgiz Kaganates. During the Early Middle Ages, a number of independent states also flourished in Kazakhstan, the best known being Kangar union, Oghuz Yabgu State, and Kara-Khanid Kaganate. In the 13th c. Kazakhstan fell into a dominion of the Mongol Empire, and remained in the sphere of the Mongol successor states till the New Time. Starting in the 16th c. parts of Kazakhstan were annexed by the Russian Empire, and what remained was gradually absorbed into Russian Turkestan, starting in 1867. The modern Republic of Kazakhstan was separated into a new political entity during the Soviet subdivision of the Russian Turkestan in the 1930s.

Stone and Bronze Age on the territory of Kazakhstan

1. The Stone century on the territory of Kazakhstan.

The ancient history of human society is divided into stone, bronze or iron age or age. The basis of this periodization put the main material from which produced tools and household items. Stone age - the oldest and longest period of human development, when tools and weapons were made of wood and bone. His chronological boundaries around - 2 million, six thousand years ago. Stone Age is traditionally divided into ancient - Paleolithic (from Greek - palanos - ancient and Litos - rock), medium - and a new Mesolithic - Neolithic. Paleolithic inhabitants of Kazakhstan, according to the archaeological excavations to obtain and maintain a fire, hunting and gathering plant foods. In the Paleolithic period have been significant changes in the technology of stone tools and the way of life of ancient people. They are the result of a new, higher stage of human evolution - the emergence paleanthropines. On the territory of Kazakhstan registered a large number of monuments of the Lower Paleolithic. They point to the fact that the primitive man of the time was utilized in most areas of southern, central and eastern Kazakhstan. In the late Paleolithic period (40-30 thousand years ago) appears modern humans (Homo Sapiens), there is a new (extractor) technique of stone. It is possible to create such tools as scrapers, cutters, needle with a blunt edge, drawing knife, knives, spears, and guns from the bones - throwing spears, hoes, polishers, different animal figures and sculptures of women that point to the emergence among the ancient people worship women - housewives ancestors and hearth. This period is called matriarchy. Mesolithic (12-6 thousand years BC) - is the least known period in the history of Kazakhstan. However, it is known that the origin of characteristic Mesolithic foraging, ie is animal husbandry and agriculture and development in the Stone mikrolitizatsii inventory. Neolithic (6-4 thousand years BC) is represented in Kazakhstan next characteristic of cultures that contain a high degree of similarity. Today in Kazakhstan over 500 known Neolithic sites. In the Neolithic appear geometric tools such as diamond, triangles, trapezoids and segments. People engaged in hunting, fishing, gathering. The guns were made of jasper, quartzite and hornfels. Of them made arrowheads, spears, awls, knives, axes, scrapers, chisels, etc. During this period, there are ceramic ware. Kazakhstan has numerous parking discovered in the sands of the Kyzyl-Kum, Moyynkum, Balkhash and Irtysh, the Aral Sea and along the major and minor rivers and lakes. In the Neolithic occurred disengagement economy. Some tribes engaged in hunting and fishing, other - hunting and herding, and others - in farming and hunting, which has led to a new social division of labor. Socio-economic development in a primitive society depended primarily on the natural environment. Primitive Human teams can adapt to its environment and to ensure their livelihoods only by joint efforts, united in a small (20-30 individuals) of the group. This group at an early stage of development is the primitive human herd, which preceded the generic collective. Actually the tribal system, which is the basis of primitive society, was formed with the appearance of modern man 40-30 thousand ago in the Upper Paleolithic. Primitive human herd suffered from such distinctive features as the common work and common ownership of the means of production and the products of labor. Satisfy most of the needs of primitive hunting. This contributed to the abundance of animals in humid and warm climates. People to develop and improve methods of hunting, inventing and complicate tools. Great importance for the people of the Paleolithic played a gathering, and later fishing. Major changes economic system of the stone undergoes in Kazakhstan in the Eneolithic. Archaeological excavations suggest that, in this era of leading industries have extensive hunting and fishing through regional migration. For residents of the Eneolithic has characterized much already settled, with significant development domestic crafts (woodworking, tanning hides, weaving mats, ceramic production, weaving, etc.). 2. The Kazakhstan in the Bronze Age. Bronze Age began in the 2nd millennium BC Progress of the society of the Bronze Age was determined by two factors: the bronze metallurgy and animal husbandry. Natural Resources of Kazakhstan polymetals was one of the main causes in the area of ​​significant focus the production of bronze, which has had a great influence on the development of the neighboring tribes. Restructuring primitive economy was also determined and climate change. Thus, in the Bronze Age, to replace cool-wet phase comes more than thousand-year period of gradual climate change in the direction of greater warming and drying, a period of dry and hot climate. The beginning of these processes coincided with the change of the demographic situation in Kazakhstan. It was at this time begin to move here big groups pastoralists owned by language to the community, which is called the Indo-European. In the 3rd millennium BC, with the development of livestock and borrowing from the ancient oriental civilization wheeled carts (via the Caucasus and the Danube), started the eastern migration of Indo-Europeans. The largest shifts eastward tribal groups of the Volga and Black Sea region occurred in 1800-1600 years. BC, when the steppe there were two new archaeological community or culture. West, formed between the Dnieper and the Volga, was called "carcass" of culture (by way of burial in the house). East, established in the steppes of Kazakhstan and South Siberia (by identifying the place around with. Andronovka on the Yenisei), became known as "Andronovo" culture. A study of the monuments of the Andronovo culture, archaeologists have found that the area it extends not only to Western Siberia and the valley of the upper Yenisei, but reaches to the south of the Central Tien Shan, southern Tajikistan, and Afghanistan. However, the indigenous territories are Kazakhstan and adjacent areas of the Urals. Here were found the most ancient monuments of the Andronovo culture. Andronovo culture existed for about eight or nine centuries, and its development of three phases: early (18-16 centuries BC.), Development (14-13 centuries BC.) And late (12-11 centuries BC.). Archaeological evidence indicates that Andronovskoe population overwhelmingly led sedentary. The villages were located along rivers with broad floodplain grasslands. Large patriarchal families erected huts with various outbuildings and corrals. It is obvious that as long as there was a threat of private attacks, no other way to herd cattle was not. But, according to archaeologists, since the 15th century BC, there were unfortified settlement. Then a new form of animal husbandry - stripping. Shepherds in the spring drove the herd of long grazing with cattle roamed and only fall back to the village. On the distant pastures they were built of poles light frame houses, with walls made of wicker or mats - a kind of ancestors yurts. That distant-pasture cattle was an intermediate link in the transition to a more productive way of development of the steppe and semi-desert grassland - nomadic pastoralism. An important prerequisite to such lifestyle changes was the composition of the herd, which were particularly numerous horses and sheep, more than others adapted to foraging under the snow and long-range movements. In the same context, increase the number of two-humped camels - Bactrians. There were also adapted to the long-range migrations felt tent, mounted on four-wheel carts, fragments of clay models found during the excavation of the Andronovo settlements and tents on the carts themselves depicted on the rocks of other petroglyphs. Archaeological material and gives an indication of the religious concepts of Andronov, their ideology, and the stratification of society, ie sharing it on social classes or groups. So, along with freemen - shepherds and farmers, there was a military aristocracy, characterized by its position and wealth of other relatives. The basis of this aristocracy were warriors, charioteers, producing wealth and fame in raids and in war, in defense of his family and tribe, cattle rustling other tribes.

The ancient tribes in Kazakhstan territory (111 B.C. – V A.C.)

1. Kazakhstan in Saka-Sarmatian period. In the early 1st millennium BC, defined as the Early Iron Age, the population of the Central Asian steppes turned to nomadic pastoralism. The emergence and development of his in the steppes of Central Asia and Eurasia, marked a new stage in the ethnic history - began to appear in the arena of tribes and tribal unions, who spoke in Persian sources named Saki. Persian texts give us the most detailed picture of settlement Saka tribes Saks tigrahauda / ostroshapochnye Saks / Saks haomavarga (produced drink haoma), Saks, which for Sogdos Saks and overseas. In general, the area which is related to dwelling Saks, includes limits on the Northern Black Sea coast to the eastern regions of Central Asia, including the Pamir, and sometimes up to East Turkestan. It is generally accepted that all associate with nomadic peoples are defined as belonging to the eastern branch of the Indo-Iranian group of Indo-European languages. Written sources and archaeological evidence suggests that even in 7-5 centuries. BC. e. Saka tribes of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, were related - nected with civilizations of the ancient world - Assyria and Media, and with sulfur - Dina VI century BC - From Persia. Saki participated in many historical events of the time. Thus, the Persian king Cyrus made an alliance with the Sakas and seek their help in the war against the Lydian king Croesus. Darius 1 / 521-486 years. BC / on time subjugated individual Saka tribes, including Saks haomavargov. They joined the XV satrapy (tax-paying districts) of the Achaemenids. Saki served in the armed forces of the Achaemenids. Part of them even entered the personal guard of Persian king - in the number of so-called "ten thousand ¬ mertnyh Bess." At the end of the beginning of the VI-V centuries. BC individual Saka tribes fought on the side of the Persians in grekopersidskih wars. In the 30 years of the IV. BC Alexander the Great defeated the army of the last Achaemenid Darius III and invaded Central Asia. Taking Marakanda (Samarkand) Greco-Macedonians went to the Syr Darya. When you try to cross it, Alexander the Great was wounded Saka boom. Archaeological and ethnographic data suggest the existence of the Sakas three major livestock species: nomad - semi-nomadic and sedentary. In Saka have evolved wheeled transport. The high level of craftsmanship, the existence of religious beliefs and said the find in the Issyk burial mound of the rich man, better known as "The Golden Man". 2. Ancient triebs.

At the beginning of our era in Kazakhstan dominated by two tribal union: Usun and Kang-kü/Kangju. Usun. Usuns moved to Jeti 160 g do.n.e. Here, a new independent ownership led by the leader Usuns, bore the title "gunmo." Original place of settlement Usuns was part of the current Chinese province of Gansu. Center Usun possessions was Ili valley, although rate Usuns-city Red Valley - Chiguchen, was located in the Issyk-Kul. Usuns migrated mingled with the local population. In Usuns were Caucasoid features as Saks and Mongoloid Yuezhi. Usuns were a nomadic people, but there were quite a large sedentary population. Archaeological evidence of the development of crafts such as weaving, tanning, Kuznetsk and jewelry. Did Usuns and fishing - this is shown by numerous finds of stone sinkers. There is every reason to believe that the sedentary life of farming existed in Usuns in the first centuries of our era. On the territory of the state Usun found a large quantity of metal, stone and clay seals, which indicates the existence of private property. Kangüy (Kangly). At the turn of a new era of population Kang-kü to Chinese testimonies of 600 thousand to 120 thousand able-bodied men. Its capital city was Bityan. If the economy was dominated by cattle Usuns, then Kangüy Valley Syr main direction of economic activity ¬ sequences were rainfed agriculture, estuary, combined with sedentary cattle. Settlements at Kangüy consisted of dozens of residential and commercial buildings were fortified by walls and moats, ¬ GOVERNMENTAL filled with water. Utility value had hunting and fishing - is talking about it finds harpoons jail, fishing hooks and sinkers. Kangüy tribes were exchanged with the Central Asian states. Transcaucasia, Rome and China. In 1.2 cc. BC Kangüy minted its own coins. Chinese Ambassador Zhang Nian of Usuns Kang-kü/Kangju was in ¬ ravlen prints on post horses, indicating a highly developed road infrastructure. The Huns (Xiongnu). At the end of the 3rd century BC large tribal association formed Huns. The basis of economic activity and Huns were breeding, but they knew and agriculture. The history of the rise of the Huns is associated with the leader of the Huns - Shanyu Mode, which for several years to subdue the neighboring nomadic tribes and moved to China, defeated his army and forced the Chinese emperor to pay an annual tribute. As a result, the gains under the rule of the Huns was a huge territory - from Transbaikalia to Tibet, from Xinjiang to the middle reaches of the Hwang Ho. Trying to defend against nomadic incursions, the Chinese and built the Great Wall of China. In 43 BC Hun Empire was divided into two parts, North and South. In 93 AD northern Chinese empire was divided - 200 thousand Huns surrendered to China. Southern Huns in the beginning of our era moved into Central Kazakhstan, entering into contact with Kangüy north of the Syr Darya. Later, the Huns, moving to the west, appear in the Aral and Caspian steppes, forcing the Alans. This was the beginning of the Great Migration.

The Turk states in Kazakhstan

1. Turkic khanates in VI-IX centuries .

In VI. lands of Kazakhstan fell under the power of Turkic khanate. Turk Empire included in the system of political and economic relations between the largest countries of the time, the Byzantine Empire, Sassanid state (Iran), China, and has been fighting for control of the trade route connecting the Far East with the Mediterranean countries. Civil war in Turkic Kaganate lasted over 20 years and was completed in 603 final disintegration into two states-the West-Khanate, coverage of modern Kazakhstan, Dzungaria and part of East Turkestan, and the Eastern Khanate in Mongolia. At Hagan's Shegue (618.) And Tone Yabgu (618-630 gg.) The West-Khanate underwent brief heyday. Sheguy already made the eastern boundary of Altai Kaganat and Tone Yabgu revived active Western policy Khaganate and moved his winter residence in Suyab-largest trade and crafts center in the valley. Shu. Summer rates are in Ming-Bulak near Isfidzhab. Khanate representing a single system of nomadic and semi-nomadic way of settled agricultural economy and the type of management. The population engaged in trade, crafts, farming and animal husbandry. The first person in Kaganate was Hagan, the emperor, ruler, military commander.     Highest titles in Kaganate-Yabgu shad and Elteber - belonged to the Kagan family. Judicial function performed buyruqs, Tarhan. The basic population consisted of free Khaganate small commune herders (karabudun).     In Zwest Kaganate was a process of class formation and the relatively rapid formation of feudal social relations. Military and political resources of the central government the West-Khanate was insufficient to keep the tribes and nations in obedience. In Kaganate there is continuous strife, frequent changes of rulers. Long war and dynastic feuds (640-657gg.) Led to the invasion of troops in the Seven Rivers Tang empire. Tang governor tried to control the West-tribes, but do not give up the fight against the Turks Tang conquerors led to the rise of Turgeshes in 704 g Turgish - numerous people, occupies the western part of the West-Khanate in the Chu-Ili watershed. Main rate Turgeshes g.Suyabe was in, and then was transferred to Taraz. Turkic Khaganate continued state administrative, military and socio-cultural traditions of the West-Khanate. In 744, in Central Asia, a new state - Uighur Khanate, where the leader of the Karluk got the title right Yabgu. However, the desire for independence led to the Karluk, which they extend to the Uyghur Khaganate. Since that time, was the only rival Karluk Turkic Khanate. In 759, the Karluk Turgish launched an offensive and could not resist. By 766 Karluk finished conquest Semirechye Talas valley Shuya and reached the Western Tien Shan. It was in this period, during the reign of the Karluk, the Seven Rivers and southern Kazakhstan is in the process of settling the nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkic people. Karluk union in IX-X centuries. consisted of numerous tribal groups. In VIII-X centuries. in Karluk state was an intensive process Turkization settled agricultural people. Elteber chiefs had the title, the supreme ruler, dzhabgu, and with 840-Kagan. The capital was g.Suyab. Karluk Khanate from the beginning did not have strong economic ties. Its share strife, struggle for power, for grazing. In 942, the state Karluk fell. 2. The states in Kazakhstan in the 10-12 centuries.

In IX-XI centuries. north-west of the Karluk Kaganate formed feudal state Oghuz tribes. Formation Oguz ethnicity was complicated and lengthy process. The composition of the Oghuz came nomadic and semi-nomadic clans and tribes su, and Siberia. The original core group formed in Oguz Jeti, but in the course of its movement to the west it is enriched by the nomadic and semi-nomadic population of the Southern and Western Kazakhstan. Oguz head of state was "dzhabgu" (Yabgu). Important position at the court held the leader Oguz troops (suybashi). In Oguz state had a system of tax collection. At the turn of the X-XI centuries. Oguz state began to decline and by mid-century. it fell under the blows of Kipchak tribes.     In the forties the X century. there is the Karakhanid (942-1210 gg.) in East Turkestan, su, and South Prityanshanya. The ancestor of the dynasty Karakhanids assumed Satuq Bogra Khan (915-955 gg.), Who opposed the former ruler of East Turkestan. In 942, the Satuq Bogra Khan deposed ruler in Balasagun and declared himself the supreme Kagan. However, he enjoyed the support of a strong while the Samanids. The Karakhanid only at first continued the tradition Turk Empire. In the future, there's a different political system. The head of state was called Karahanidskyi tamgach Khan themselves Turks called it Hakan. Power in Qarakhanid state was divided between Chigils and Yagma. This is reflected in the division Khaganate in two parts - east and west, with their lords headed. Supreme considered eastern Hagan, who had a stake in Kashgar and Balasagun. He was from Chigils and held the title Arslan Kara - Haq. West, Jr., Hagan held the title of Yagma Bogra Kara Hagan and had a bet in Taraz, and later, in Samarkand. In government officials involved-lords. In the service of the Khans consisted viziers, generals, top advisers, ambassadors, clerks, treasurers. Overall Karahanidskyi era was a qualitatively new stage in all spheres of society. In the middle of the XI century. a movement Kipchak tribes to the west. In the XI-XII centuries. Kipchaks are actively involved in the political events of Russia, Eastern Europe, the Byzantine Empire. In the middle of the XI century. Kipchak tribes settled in the vast territory of modern Kazakhstan from Altai and the Irtysh in the east to the Volga and the Southern Urals in the west, of Lake Balkhash in the south to the forest-steppe zone southwestern Siberia in the north. Since the beginning of the XI century. prior to the XIII century. formation of ethnic communities Kipchaks enters a new stage of development. This phase is associated with an increase in the power of Kipchak Khans. By this time belongs to the emergence of the term "Dasht-i-Kipchak," that is, "Kipchak Steppe." Kipchak ethnos was formed on the basis of many clans and tribes, united not by blood ties, but on the principle of territorial-economic relations. State Dasht-i-Kipchak was prevailing centralized feudal state, continuing the tradition of the Ancient statehood. There was a strict hierarchical society was socially and caste differentiated power - hereditary. With the Dasht-i-Kipchak bordered on the north-east of the Sayan-Altai civilization whose carriers were Kyrgyz, Khakassia, and others in the north-west of the Kipchaks entered ethnocultural and political contact with the population of the Volga and Ural regions. Ethnic territory Kipchak tribes within their ethno-political association was relatively stable, with the exception of the south-western borders, where, since the 30's. XII. pursued an active policy of state of Khorezm Shahs.

2. The Culture of Turks.

The Culture of Turks represented in the training manual "Innovative teaching methods in practical courses on the history of Kazakhstan" May 18 2001 .was exposure Kultegin presentation at the International Conference "Ancient Civilization: written records" with the participation of President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev, members of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, scientists from Russia, Denmark, Mongolia, China, France, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. In Astana, the Eurasian State University. ENU delivered copy large inscription in honor of the commander Kyultegin (684 731g.g.) Manufactured by Japanese experts on modern technologies.     In this symbolic action in the year of the 10th anniversary of Kazakhstan's independence is seen beginning of a long way people perceive the deep and strong roots in the heroic deeds of their ancestors.     Kazakh culture - direct descendant of the Ancient civilization. Thanks to the achievements of archeology we now know that our ancestors were medieval urban culture, irrigation, architecture, and art. It is proved that our home was the home of a kind of steppe civilization, combining symbiotic culture of farmers and pastoralists, Cities and Stepi.Prichem tradition of interaction can be traced in the past - in the Bronze Age. First, a definition of "culture." Culture - a set of achievements of human society in the industrial, social and spiritual zhizni.Kultura is material and spiritual. Relate to material culture such as cities, monuments, household items, clothing, folk crafts., And the spiritual - folklore, literary, music. Town is in flood plains, rivers, at the junction of the continents on the track trade caravan routes, as the city was a center of trade and crafts, with \ economy, such a region on the territory of Kazakhstan was Seven Rivers.   The first description of cities Seven Rivers belong to Buddhist pilgrim Xuan Zang, drove here in 630g. He wrote: "After more than 500 li to the north-west of the clear lakes, arrived in the city on the river Sui-e (Suyab). This city in a circle 7.6 li.V it mixed live traders from different countries and hustsy. Directly to the west of Suye are dozens of single cities, and in each of them the elder. Although they are independent of one another, but they all obey tudzyuyu (Kagan). Country from the city Sui-e to Geshuanna (Kushania) is Suli, its population is also the name of ... Those who cultivate the fields, and those who pursue profit - equally. " In Sughd cultural complex are embodied and functions of the city as a center of trade, commerce and agriculture. Distribution Sogdian cultural complex in the Seven Rivers was partly through direct resettlement here sogdiytsev.S other hand it can be explained as a reflection of the process of cultural integration. Sogdians were based Dzhamukat city, Bundzhikat     Simultaneously with the Sogdian cultural complex in the Seven Rivers, southern Kazakhstan and Maurya extends Turkic cultural complex represented in the archaeological materials such numerous findings as metal utensils and weapons, objects with runic inscriptions. As a result, in the first half of the 6-9v.v. in the Seven Rivers and Central Asia develops unique cultural complex, which can be called the Turk-Sogdian.     Intensive cultural synthesis took place against the background of Ethnogenetic processes. Thus, in the early Middle Ages, in the south of Kazakhstan, and in the Seven Rivers has developed a kind of culture that has integrated itself into the cultural achievements of Sogdiana and Turkic cultural complex. Most pronounced manifestation of this integration is observed in the culture of the city. By the way, archaeological research in southern Kazakhstan recorded 25 settlements with layers 6 9v.v., Which can be considered remnants gorodov.Izvestny names of some of them - Isfidzhab, Sharab, Buduhket, Otrar Shavgar. These cities stand out: the citadel, and shahristan rabad      In the southwest Jeti on arheologicheskipm data, there are 27 settlements, most of which are identified with the chronicles of Taraz, Kulan, Atlahom, Dzhamukatom, Merka. Arab conquest had a profound impact on the lives of Central South Azii.I although neither Kazakhstan nor Semirechye not under the power of the Arabs, though affected by the consequences of the gains to the urban culture oblasti.Svyazannaya close economic and cultural ties with Central Asia, it has experienced a strong influence of Muslim culture, which has spread especially among the urban population. Written sources indicate an increase in the number of cities at that time. At the foothill of Talas Alatau, according to these data, there were cities and Dzhumishlagu Mankent; Arys formed in the Middle District Kendzhide centered Usbanikete, in Otrar oasis - City Keder, Vesidzh and Buruk, surrounding Shavgar - Iasi Shagildzhan, Karnak, Karachuk ; Sauran, in the lower Syrdarya - Sygnak, Djendem, Asanas, Barchkent, on the northern slopes - Balaji and Beruket. The Silk put beginning of his public history of the Turks controlled the important parts of the Eurasian trade routes, received at the end of the 19th century. with the filing of labor German geographer and geologist Richthofen "China" exotic name "Silk Road," for important exports from China to the West was the silk, which became an international currency. For the history of Kazakhstan is extremely important study on the interaction between the nomadic and sedentary civilizations, between the steppe and the city. Route Syria - Iran - Central Asia - South Kazakhstan - Talas Valley - Chu valley - Issyk-Kul Basin - East Turkestan remained basic to 14c. Went out on the track and also a different route: from Byzantium through Derbent Caspian steppes - Mangistau - Aral - South Kazakhstan. It looked like the Kazakhstan section of the Silk Road puti.Iz ​​Shasha went through the pass at Turbat in Ispijab, located caravanserais, commercial buildings, whose owners were merchants Bukhara and Samarkanda.Geograf 10v.Ibn Haukal wrote: "Ispidzhab consists of the medina, the citadel and rabada.U medina four gates ... This hearty people and vast city, all over Khorasan and Transoxiana no city, but can not be levied kharaj except Ispidzhab "Leaving Ispidzhab caravans moved toward Taraz. From Taraz eastward path continued to desert the city Kulanov Karluk. Geographical dictionary by Yakut said in the 20 g.g.13v.; "Kulan - a pleasant town on the border of the country of Turks by the Maurya."     Kulan from further east stand of Merka and Aspar.     Jill of Shuba road was in Saryg - Kirmirau - Navaket (rezidentsiyakaganov) - Penjikent - Suyab.Suyab - Seven Rivers largest city, was the capital of the Western Turks, Turgeshes and Karluk. Suyab of roads were either the northern or the southern shores of Lake Issyk-Kul, then joined in Bedel Pass and through it, or Tashrabat, the Silk Road brought to Kashgar and Aksu.     Of the Issyk-Kul basin through the pass and valley r.Karkary Santas walking path in the Ili valley, then in Almalyk, and then on the northern tip of the Dead of the Takla Makan desert oasis in Hami and Turpan went to Dunhuang in China. Silk Road first to export Chinese silk. In turn, Rome, Byzantium, India, Iran, the Arab Caliphate, and later in Europe and Russia were on it frankincense and myrrh, jasmine and amber water, cardamom and nutmeg, ginseng and bile python, carpets and fabrics, dyes and minerals, diamonds, jade, amber, coral, ivory, silver and gold bullion, furs, coins, bows and arrows, swords and spears. Silk Road carried on sale famous Ferghana horses, Arab and nisiyskih horses, camels, elephants, rhinos and lions and t.d.Po Silk Road extended cultivated plants. Except goods on the Silk Road spread religious ideas, art, music. Contemporaries praised those distant events not only prosperity of a state, but also the development of the values ​​of foreign cultures own people, communication between people. Silk Road united the various philosophical systems, demonstrated tolerance, desire for an active exchange of innovations. Turks had made the colossal cultural breakthrough, a new type of an open culture with its unique runic alphabet. Suffice it to say that UNESCO in 1987. approved by the international research project "Silk Road - the path of dialogue" on the initiative of Greece, Egypt, Indonesia, Italy, China, the Mongolian People's Republic, Oman, Portugal, Sri Lanka and the former Soviet Union. Since 1993. countries have made steps to revive tourism. China, India, Pakistan, Iran, Greece, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates was the first tourists. Opened their borders Kazakhstan and Central Aziya.Ne stayed away and the state - the Silk Road destinations on its both ends: Japan, Korea, Europe.

3. Ancient Turkic writing monumenst. In the world, there are over 3,000 living languages, but only about 200 of them have writing.     In Kazakhstan, the oldest monument of writing a silver cup from 26 runic signs, supported metal stiletto on the bottom of the Issyk burial mound excavated in 1969 K.A.Akishevym 1970g.g., And dated 5 v.d.n.e . However, it has not yet been read and the definition of its language is controversial, although the proposed 11 different decryption in Kazakhstan, Russia, and Hungary. And this is the "26 silent centuries" - as one of the intellectuals of our time. We have reviewed with you by the example of the Turkic period material culture, now for the spiritual. Work on the two sub-group. The ancient letter was first discovered in the valley of the Yenisei River in the 20s 17c. German scientist Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt, in the service of Petra1 and accompanied him shvndskim officer Philip Johann Tabbertom-Strahlenberg,. They called the letter "rune" - on his resemblance to the Scandinavian runic text and this name stuck in science.    In 1889. Russian ethnographer and archaeologist Nikolai Mikhailovich Yadrintsev found on the banks of the Orkhon-r.Kokshin in northern Mongolia two large runic monument in honor of Bilge Kagan (680-734) and in honor of his brother, the commander Kyultegin (684-731), erected in 732 - 735g.g. Occurrences on the writings were called "the Orkhon-Yenisei". These monuments of Bilge Kagan and Kyultegin as first counselor monument Hagan second Vostochnotyurkskogo Khaganate (689-744g.g.) Tonyukuk (646 731g.g.), Created shortly after 716g. during his lifetime. Are the most ancient monuments of the ancient Turkic writing. Great contribution to the study of the monuments of runic letters have Finnish and Russian scientists under the direction of Axel Olaya Geykelya and Vasily Radlov. According to the results of their scientific expeditions created two atlas with pictures, diagrams, and six collections of works that have become required reading turkologists future generations, historians, orientalists research schools in different countries.     Danish scientist, linguist, scholar, historian, skandinavist in their major field of Wilhelm Thomsen, the world's first read the word "Turk" and "Tengri" of runic texts found on the banks of the Orkhon, and announced the transfer of 15 December 1893. at a meeting of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences. It was a great scientific discovery in the world linguistics. Moscow researcher Murad Adji calls this date - the date of the second birth of the Turks. Distribution area of ​​the Ancient runic inscriptions in Kazakhstan is quite large - it r.Talas Valley, OR, Darya, Irtysh, Zhaiyk. Note the inscription on pottery near Taraz on bronze mirrors near the East Kazakhstan, on a clay whorl of Talgar, hum on the aureole of the settlement of Altyn-Asar Jetyasar Tracts Eastern Aral, printed on clay, found during excavations at the fort Aktobe 1 Chardara, on the lower part of the vessel Altyntobe near Shymkent, bronze rings on the label in the layer 10 11. Zhaksylyk on the mound near Almaty. The best known of these so-called Koshotsamdayskie monuments - the stele in honor of Bilge Kagan and his brother Cul tegin, erected in 732-735g.g., As well as first counselor stele Hagan second Vostochnotyurkskogo Khaganate (689-744g.g.) Tonyukuk ( 646-731g.g.), created shortly after 716g. during his lifetime. All of the major texts of Orkhon fairly uniform in structure. They contain the story of the life and exploits of their heroes, expounded on the background of the general history of the Turkic states and accompanied by various declarations. The inscriptions are given a wealth of information for the history, ideology and culture of Ancient tribes and peoples, their language and literary devices. Znachenipe era Orkhon-Yenisei Turks and ancient Turkic runic writing overestimated. With the onset of old age Ancient Empire - China in East Asia, Byzantium and Iran in the Western and Central Asia - have ceased to be the only dominant big states. And the Turks settled in the vast distances - 10tys.km straight, nations and empires arose as a direct ancestor of modern Turkic nations and states, including the Kazakh. In addition to the resettlement of Arabs during the Arab conquest and the Europeans during the development of newly discovered continents - America and Australia after Christopher Columbus, no group of people is not to settle in such a grand scale.     In the ancient Turkic runic writing reflected the ideology and introduced the concept of a centralized state as the guarantor of the freedom and independence of the Turkic peoples, for centuries had a common history and a common culture of origin, which has become their common heritage. It laid the inexhaustible energy and strong will of Turkish ale makers regarding anything related to such sacred notions as "people", "State", "freedom", "independence".     Monuments of Ancient writing - an extremely valuable source for the language, history, ethnogenesis, geography, literary culture. They are witnessing a high-level language, culture and statehood ancestors of the Kazakh people. 3. Beliefs and religion of Turks. On the religious world in the scientific literature until recently, was not given a special significance, since the system of spiritual culture of the former Soviet society and the religious worldview, however. The ideology prevailed critical analysis in the context of religion and atheism, and to the values ​​of spiritual culture is only of education, science and art.     In the book, the President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev "Critical Decade" is emphasized: "For us, Kazakhs, Islam - this is primarily a high ideal and the factors determining our world, a symbol that allows to pay tribute to the memory of our ancestors and the rich Muslim culture, which once threatened to total oblivion. "   Among the traditional spiritual values, which for centuries formed the national mentality of the Kazakh people, there is a cult vselencheskogo kosmicheskogog deity - Tengri. Shad - as God wrote Valikhanov. In common parlance Tengri Kazakhs used as a synonym of the Muslim "Allah" and the Persian "kudaya." Expressions like "Tenir zharylkasyn! - Bless you Tengri "," ittin iesi Bolsa, tulkinin teniri bar "-" if the dog has a master, then the fox is Tengri ", proper names (Tenirbergen, Khan-Tengri) indicate deep penetration Tengri worship in various spheres of life people. In the last century, when Sh.Ualihanov complained about the dual faith Kazakhs, he had in mind as an alternative to Islam is bent. The main religion was the worship of the ancient Turkic Tengri (Sky). That is the will of Heaven kagan, who were called "Nebopodobnymi in heaven-born", "Heaven, which, to avoid missing the name and fame of Turkish people, elevate my father Kagan and my mother Katun, Sky, conferring (Khagans) States planted myself, I suppose, Hagan, is not lost to the name and fame of the Turkish people, "- writes Bilge-Kagan on his accession to the throne. By the will of Heaven Turks victories or were defeated. Heaven and Earth-saving water Turkic people in hard times. Turkic khans in their signatures consistently called Heaven be supportive to them. Next in importance was a female deity Umai - patroness of the home and children. Umai cult still kept some Turkic peoples of Altai in the late 19th century. However, Umai was part of a triad of deities higher Turks and patron of all of their business, and this can be seen, for example, of a monument in honor of Tonyukuk, where the description of one of the most successful campaigns says: "Heaven, (Goddess) Umai, Sacred Ground-Water here they are, I suppose, gives us the victory! "

Kazakhstan as a part of the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan ulus

1. Central Asia before the Mongolian invasion

What ethno-political structures were represented on the political map of Central Asia before the Mongolian invasion?

According to numerous writing sources in the XII-the beginning of the XIII-centuries the a territory of modern Kazakhstan was occupied by a lot of state unions of Turkic speaking tribes-of the Qipchaq, Kangly (Qanglis), Karluks, Naimans. And also there were two empires on the territory of Central Asia – the Kara Khitai Empire and The Khwarezmid Empire.

The main part of the territory of present Kazakhstan was a part of possessions of the Qipchaqs. Beginning with the end of the XIth century Kazakhstans Steppe from the Irtysh River to the Volga was inhabited by the Qipchaqs. The historical role of the Qipchaqs, peculiarities of their political structure and socio-economic development and also on the international arena has been studied earlier. Thats why not paying attention on these questions, we will consider the political map of other regions of present Kazakhstan before the Mongols invasion.

As you know the territory of present South-Eastern, Southern Kazakhstan and territories of Maverannahr entered the structure of the Kara Khitais possessions. The borders of this Empire were not constant,they often changed. After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907 AD the Chinese ruling class retreated from south and control of Northern China fell into hands of non-Chinese people. In 916 the Khitais - a semi-nomadic tribe from southern Mongolia, conquered Northern China and established the Liao Dynasty of northern China. In the early XIIth century the Khitais were overthrown by the Jurchids, who replaced the Liao Dynasty with the Jin Dynasty. Some time in the mid of the XIIth century the Tanghuts, a Tibetan people, established the Xi Xia Empire in western China. Meanwhile the Chinese rulers established the Song Dynasty in the south of the Yellow River (Huang He) in 906. Thus, during the rise of the Genghis Khan China was divided into three states.

After the Khitais were overthrown from Northern China, a part of their nobility fled westward to the south of Lake Balkhash. There they established the Kara Khitai Empire. The west of the Kara Khitai was the Khwarazmian Empire of Persia, which formed in the late of the XIIth century.

The formation of the Kara Khitai Empire was caused by the invasion of nomadic tribes from Central Asia. It was founded by the kidans who escaped from Chzhurzhen expansions. In the memory of Lyo Kidan Empire they named. The capital of the Si Lyo – Balacagun was situated on the Chu river. Developed agricultural areas of Fergana and Maverannahr entered the State structure. By the end of the XIIth century began weakening Si Lyos power. In 1210 the Kara Khitais were defeated by the The Khwarezmid s army. As a result Maverannahr was separated from the Kara Khitai Empire. That period the Naimans ruler Kuchluk who had escaped from Genghis Khan took his refuge at the Kara Khitai ruler and even had got married his daughter.

Having gartered the Naimans, who had escaped from the Mongols Kuchluk began raiding the Kara Khitai s territories. Soon he managed to take the control over all the Gurhans possessions. Formally Gurhan remained on the throne but the real governor became Kuchluk (as an adviser of Kara Khitai s governor). After Gurhans death, power officially passed to Kuchluk who ruled till the Mongol invasion 1215.

In the Northern part of Semirech'e there was the Karluks small possession the Muslim rules of which had the title of aprslan-khan - traditional for one of the Karahanids brunch. The Karluks principality of the Northen Semirech'e was the vassal of the Karakitaev.

In the Northern part of Semirech'e (also Dzhetysu; from Kazakh zheti [“seven”] and su [“water”]) was the Karluks small possession the Muslim rules of which had the title of arslan-khan- traditional for one of the Qarakhanids brunch. The Karluks principality of the Northen Semirech'e was the Kara Khitai s vassal.

Before the Mongol invasion territories between the Talas, Chu and Issyk Kul lake were occupied by the Kanglys. Base in the Syr-Darya with its fortified cities and adjoining areas, and also Maverannahr with oblast adjoining to it belonged to Khorezm Shah Muhammad.

In the ethnogenetic processes of the beginning of the II millennium the important role played the Naimans and the Kireits. As the analyses of the Kazakh genealogical legends show, they entered the Kazakh Nationality. But their appearance on the territory of Kazakhstan was connected with the escape from Genghis Khan at the beginning of the XIIIth century.

If to speak about economic development of Kazakhstan before the Mongol invasion two ways of life have been presented: nomadic and settled-agricultural. The center of settled civilization of Kazakhstan at that time was the South, especially Semirech'e.

The Xth-XIth centuries were the time of growth of cities in Kazakhstan both old – Otrar, Taraz, Isfidzhab, Kulan, Yangikent and new – Kayalik, Ashnas, Barlychkent. Just in the Ili valley in The Xth – XIIIth centuries appeared over 56 cities. Till the Mongolian invasion in the south of Kazakhstan and in Semirech'e widely spread the monetary trade. Two Monetary courts are known- Taraz and Isfidzhab.

In the second decade of the XIIIth century cities of Southern Kazakhstan passed under Khwarezmia s power. Khwarezm has been known also as Chorasmia, Khwarezmia, Khwarizm, Khwarazm, Khorezm, Khoresm, Khorasam, Harezm, Horezm, and Chorezm. But Semirech'e was under the Kara Khitai s power and their vassals. Spiritual culture of Kazakhstan a component of which was religion, corresponded to the high level of economic relations.

Worship of the Heaven (Tengri) and the Earth-water (Jern-sou), and also, a female deity to Umaj-patroness of the centre and children was a basis of religion of the Turkic people. Along with actually Turkic beliefs among the population were spread other religious systems: the Buddhism, The Manichaean religion, Christianity and Islam. Especially at the end of the XIIth-beginning of the XIII centuries Islam role in system of beliefs of the population amplified. As a whole, it should be noted, that religious notions of the settled and nomadic population were characterized by variety. In the X-XII centuries on the territory of Kazakhstan and Central Asia in the conditions of similarities of economic-cultural types, languages and life likeness of the Qipchaqs, Kanglus, Karluks, Kara Khitais, Naimans and Kireits took place the process of ethnic consolidation of these tribes and tribal unions, main knots of ethogenesis, formed historical preconditions of formating nations. At such level of social and economic, ethno political and cultural development found the people of Kazakhstan invasion of the Genghis Khan.

The rise of Genghis Khan. The rise of Genghis Khan was one of the most dramatic in history, and has hardly, if ever, been paralleled in history. No one rose from such a low position: as a part of a family eating roots and rodents for survival; and yet end up achieving so much in the end.

Much of what we know about Genghis' early life comes from the famous Mongol script, The Secret History of the Mongols, which is a record of Mongol history written in 1240. The bulk of the Secret History describes Genghis Khan's early life and is written with numerous dialogues between characters. When the Persian historian Rashid ad-Din wrote The History of the Tribes, he made numerous contradictions with the Secret History, which he had access to when he wrote his script. However, the contradictions are centered on details, and there is a good agreement between the two sources on the general flow of the story.

The Khuritai of 1206 – Building the Empire. In the year of the Tiger, 1206, the whole steppes stood watching as the great Khuriltai (assembly) was being held and the implied enthronement of Genghis Khan as emperor of the steppes. As emperor of the steppes, Genghis wanted to ensure the longevity of his empire. It is somewhat of a daunting task, as not so long ago his empire had been a chaotic battleground of many nomadic powers. To do this, Genghis created a system that would stress the unity of the empire, and would wipe out tendencies towards local tribal authorities. The entire population was divided into 95 military units, each responsible for maintaining 1000 warriors. Each of these units had a commander personally assigned by Genghis Khan. During times of war, each commander was expected to effectively assemble a thousand men. Failure to do so would mean removal from office and a new commander from the thousand would be elected. To ensure availability of warriors, every male at the age of fifteen were required for military duty.

Genghis also created various offices of power within his empire, including imperial administrators and the chief justice. Furthermore, he decreed a number of specific laws, including the toleration of religion, exemption of priests in taxation, the prohibition of contaminating running water, and death penalty for crimes such as robbery, adultery, military desertion, and continual bankruptcy of merchants. All of these laws and decrees made by Genghis Khan were compiled into one piece, the Great Yasa. While Genghis is often thought to be a vicious barbarian, there is no doubt that he was also a brilliant statesman.

The new military superstructure ensured a stable and militaristic society, but was not enough to conquer the world. Genghis went on to make several military reforms, including a decimal organization of the army (from units of 10 to 10,000 men), standardization of equipment, a strict system of regularly performed military drill, and a strict system of military laws. All of these regulations installed a sense of unity and maximum discipline to men who already had a lifetime of experience in horsemanship and archery. Every man in the Mongol army was both a lifetime warriors and a soldiers fighting as a part of a group -something rarely achieved before contemporary militaries. The Mongol army soon became the most disciplined, experienced, and fear less force the world had yet to see.

Genghis Khan invasion. Throughout history of the steppes have always been a stage for continuous struggle between various nomadic groups. As time passed certain groups were able to rise and gain mastery over the others. However, few have ever been able to create a lasting empire. In the late XIIth century, various Turkish and Mongol-Tungusic tribes roamed the steppes of Mongolia. The Naimans and Kereyids tribes controlled western Mongolia, the Oirats controlled the north areas, the Merkids controlled the south of Lake Baikal, and the Tartars the east of the River Kerulen. The Mongols were located between the Tartars and the Merkids. These groups are referred to as Tribes. Within these tribes are divisions called clans. Note that the clans within a tribe are not always united, as with the case of the Mongols during the rise of Genghis Khan.

It must also be noted that the common phrase saying that Genghis Khan "united the Mongol tribes" is a misleading statement. This error comes from the lack of distinguishment between Mongols and non-Mongols and between "tribes" and "clans". He united both the Mongol Clans (that used to be a united tribe) and other "non-Mongol" tribes such as the Naimans, (whose clans were united, unlike the Mongols). The nomadic nobility supported the khan only under a condition if war – a constant source of profit would not only stop but on the contrary, would extend. Therefore Chingiz-khan became on a way of external conquests.

He had a plan – invasion of the whole Eurasia, to the last sea where the Mongolian horsess hoofs would reach.

In 1207-1211 people of Siberia and Easten Turkestan were subdued by the Mongols. They were – the Yakuts, the Oirats, the Byruats, The Kirgiz, The Uigurs. In that period the Mongols undertook a campaign against The Tanguts State Xī Xià, which was finally defeated in 1227. In 1211 the Mongols began attacking the Jurchenss State – The Jīn Dynasty, which was situated on the Northern Part of China. Here the Mongols destroyed more than 90 cities and in 1215 siezed Beijing. As a result by the 1217– all the territories to the North from the Hanher river had been conquered by the Mongols.

The Mongols in their aggressive policy which was successfully realized during the XIIIth centure had a plan of a campaign to Kazakstan and Central Asia. It would open them the way to Eastern Europe and Fore Asia. It was the reason why Genghis Khan paid great attentions on that campaign and prepared carefully.

After conquering Eastern Turkestan and Semirech'e the way to Southern Kazakhstan and Central Asia was opened. The formal casus belli was the events of so-called ‘Utar cathastrophe’. Genghis lost interest in the war in China and instead, turned his attention towards the west. In 1218 he sent his general Chepe westward and conquered the Kara Khitai Empire. But the real issue was with the huge Kwarazmian Empire in Perisa. Hostilities broke out when the Kwarazm Shah attacked a Mongol caravan and humiliated Genghis 's ambassadors by burning their beards. Since Genghis sent the ambassadors for the purpose of making peace, he was outraged. Genghis prepared for the largest operation, he had yet performed and assembled a force that totaled around 90-110,000 men. The total numerical strength of the Kwarazm shah was two to three times greater, but Genghis ' army was better disciplined, and most of all, better led.

The campaign began in September 1219 from the banks of the Irtysh. Accoding to the sources Genghis led his the army from the Irtysh to the Syr-Daria across the Semirech'e. Approaching Utar Genghis Khan divided his Army. One part headed by Chagatai and Ogedei was left for the siege of Otrar. The second part headed by Dzhuchi he sent to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, the third troops subjugated the towns in upper reaches of the Syr Darya. The main forces of the Mongols headed by himself went towards Buhara.

In 1219, Ginghis's sons Chagatai and Ogedei set out to attack the city of Utar, located to the east of the Aral Sea. Meanwhile, Chingis' general Chepe, marched southwestward to protect the left flank during the operation. The main attack, however, was led by Ginghis Khan himself, who together with general Subedei, marched through the Kizil Kum desert and outflanked the Kwarazmiam forces. The plan was that the Kizil Kum desert was considered impractical to cross, which made it a great opportunity to surprise the enemy. Ginghis and his army disappeared into the desert and suddenly, out of nowhere, he appeared at the city of Bukhara. The city garrison was stunned, and was quickly defeated. Next Ginghis marched towards Samarkand, the capital of the Khwarezmian Empire. The magnificent city was heavily fortified and had a garrison of 110,000 men, which vastly outnumbered Ginghis' besieging army. The city was expected to be able to hold out for months, but on March 19, 1220 its walls were breached in just ten days. After the fall of Samarkand, the Mongols overran much of the Empire. The destruction was profound. Cities were leveled and populations were massacred. At the Merv city, accounts described an execution of 700,000. At Samarkand, women were raped and sold into slavery. Devastation was so great that the Kwarazmian Empire itself was nearly wiped away from history. The conquest of the Kwarazm also created another remarkable event. After his defeat, the Khwarezm Shah fled to the west and Subedei followed in pursue with a force of 20,000 men. The Khwarezm Shah died, however, but Subedei went further. He brought his army to the north and defeated a heavily outnumbering Russian and Cuman army at the Khalka River. He went further and attack the Volga Bulgars before returning back. As said by the famed history Gibbons, Subedei's expedition was one of the most daring expeditions in history, unlikely to be repeated ever again.

During the entire campaign, the Khwarezm Shah failed to assemble an army to fight the Mongols on the battlefield. The Khwarezm strategy relied on its extensive city garrisons that outnumbered the besieging Mongol armies. This of course, failed in every way. The only well organized resistance against the Mongols came from Jalal ad-Din, who after the fall of Samarkand, organized a resistance force on the territory of modern day Afghanistan. At Parwan, he defeated a Mongol force led by one of Ginghis' adopted son, making it the only Mongol defeat in the entire campaign. Genghis chases after Jalal ad-Din and destroyed his army at the Indus River. The defeat of Jalal ad-Din meant the consolidation of rule of Transoxania. However, the southern parts of the Khwarezmian Empire were left unconquered and later turned into a collection of Independent states. It is said that the Mongols decided not to advance when the sight of a unicorn demoralized their vanguard.  

At the age approaching sixty, Genghis Khan' health was at a decline. He sought the legendary Daoist monk Changchun for the elixir to Immortality. His wish did not come true, as Changchun had no magical elixir, but Genghis praised his wisdom and the two became good friends. Following the meeting with the Daoist monk, Genghis returned to the administration side of his objectives. Unlike Attila the Hun and Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan realized the importance of a smooth succession after his death. Before he completed his conquest of the Khwarezmian Empire, he had already carefully chosen his son Ogedei to be his successor. After Genghis returned to Mongolia to finish establish the administration structure of his empire, all the matters were in good order, except for the Tanguts. The Tangut Xi Xia Empire had long been defeated by the Mongols, but became more of a tributary rather than being annexed. However, the Tanguts had stopped complying with terms while Chingis was away. In 1226, Genghis Khan led his army against Xi Xia and captured its capital.

In 1221 with subjugating of the Khwarezm the conquest of Central Asia was finished. By 1225 the main Mongolian forces had left for Mongolia. Only the30-thousand group of Zhebe and Subedeja continued the war in the west.

2. The Kazakh lands as a part of Mongolian uluses

Genghis Khan, according to Dzhuvejni, even in his lifetime distributed special territories named yurts, to each of his sons. In research literature the territories distributed among sons by Genghis Khan is accepted to name apanages or uluses.

The territory of Kazakhstan entered the structure of three Mongolian uluses:

the most part of steppe spaces of the north of the country and the areas from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to Alakul lake and farther to the West to Or and Syr Darya Rivers entered Jujis ulus.

Southern and Southeast Kazakhstan entered Chaghatais ulus. Besides, outside of modern Kazakhstan that ulus included the following territories: East Turkestan and Maverannahr.

Northeast Kazakhstan was a part of Ugedejas ulus, which included the territory of Western Mongolia, the area of the Upper Irtysh and Tarbagatai.

During Chingiz-khans lifetime the lands alloted to his sons, were for them only served as source of income for them, but nevertheless they remained themselves subordinated to the head of the empire. After his death the situation had changed. Extensiveness of the Mongolian power, remoteness of a residence of uluses from theball-empire the centre on Orkhon conducted possessors to that the local authorities became the valid power only.

The dynasties began introducing an appanage appanage system, transition to the real power in uluses to the descendants of Ginghis Khans sons raised aspiration among the Chingizid uluses to make their dynasty completely independent, and their uluses Independent possession.