- •Internal combustion engine
- •Give equivalents to the following words and word combinations:
- •Translate the following sentences into Russian:
- •Using the English-Russian dictionary translate the following text
- •Into Russian:
- •IV. Translate the following information into English:
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- •Explain and translate the following definitions of the car body elements:
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- •Be ready to talk and discuss the general structure of a ship
- •Uss Nimitz’s catapult 1
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- •Inspecting a used car
- •Incandescent lighting - освещение лампами накаливания
- •Answer and translate the following questions:
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- •Various definitions
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- •I. Translate the following sentences:
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- •Be ready to talk about the power supply at your home.
- •Introduction to power electronics
- •I. Answer the following questions:
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- •Into Russian:
- •Translate the following text: Conductors
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- •Translate into English: Теория цепей
- •Translate into Russian: Current supply
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- •Introduction to radar fundamentals
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- •Read and translate the list of chemical elements with their symbols and atomic number: (in alphabetical order)
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- •Put 6 questions to the text and answer them:
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- •Translate the following text and he ready to discuses properties of elements: Chemical properties of elements
- •Vanderwaals radius
- •Ionic radius
- •Isotopes
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- •Classification by Structural Change
- •Classification by Reaction Type
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- •Reaction Characteristics
- •Factors that Influence Reactions
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- •Translate the following text into English: Насыщенные углеводороды
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- •Be ready to answer questions on the text and talk about the refinery presses.
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- •Interface поверхность раздела; граница
- •Viscosity
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- •Translate the following text and be ready to discuss it: crude oil pretreatment (desalting).
- •Electrostatic desalting.
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- •Improving the quality of petroleum products
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- •Translate into Russian: The Physics of Oil Refineries
- •Discussion of the refinery process. Prepare the brief report on one of the theme topics.
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- •Introduction to nuclear power
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- •Inside the reactor
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- •Give equivalents to the terms on the fig.2 using technical dictionaries.
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- •Translate into English: Устройство энергетических ядерных реакторов.
- •Put several questions to the text above and answer them:
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- •To check yourself try to translate the following text at sight:
- •Introduction to the almr/prism
- •Translate the following information into English: хранение ядерного топлива
- •Work area
- •Electrical safety
- •Power tool use and care
- •Service
- •Рабочее место
- •Поддерживайте чистоту и порядок на Вашем рабочем месте.
- •Меры безопасности при подключении к электросети.
- •Указания по безопасности
- •Использование инструмента и уход за ним.
- •Important safety instructions
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- •Устройство и принцип работы р ис. 1. Внешний вид аппарата.
- •6 Claims, 5 Drawing Figures exhaust gas recirculation apparatus for engine with turbocharger
- •Read the patent given above, identify its parts and be ready to comment on peculiarities of their translation. 2. Translate the following extract into English:
- •Beltline: The horizontal area of the body along the door just below the side-window glass.
- •Abstract
- •Description
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Ядерные реакторы. Промышленные ядерные реакторы первоначально разрабатывались лишь в странах, обладающих ядерным оружием. США, СССР, Великобритания и Франция активно исследовали разные варианты ядерных реакторов. Однако впоследствии в атомной энергетике стали доминировать три ос
новных типа реакторов, различающихся, главным образом, топливом, теплоносителем, применяемым для поддержания нужной температуры активной зоны, и замедлителем, используемым для снижения скорости нейтронов, выделяющихся в процессе распада и необходимых для поддержания цепной реакции.
Среди них первый (и наиболее распространенный) тип - это реактор на обогащенном уране, в котором и теплоносителем, и замедлителем является обычная, или «легкая», вода (легководный реактор). Существуют две основные разновидности легководного реактора: реактор, в котором пар, вращающий турбины, образуется непосредственно в активной зоне (кипящий реактор), и реактор, в котором пар образуется во внешнем, или втором, контуре, связанном с первым контуром теплообменниками и парогенераторами (водо-водяной энергетический реактор - ВВЭР). Так, в 1950-х годах компании «Дженерал электрик» и «Вестингауз» разрабатывали легководные реакторы для подводных лодок и авианосцев ВМФ США.
Второй тип реактора, который нашел практическое применение, - газоохлаждаемый реактор (с графитовым замедлителем). Его создание также было тесно связано с ранними программами разработки ядерного оружия. В конце 1940-х
начале 1950-х годов Великобритания и Франция, стремясь к созданию собственных атомных бомб, уделяли основное внимание разработке газоохлаждаемых реакторов, которые довольно эффективно вырабатывают оружейный плутоний и к тому же могут работать на природном уране.
Третий тип реактора, имевший коммерческий успех, - это реактор, в котором и теплоносителем, и замедлителем является тяжелая вода, а топливом тоже природный уран. В начале ядерного века потенциальные преимущества тяжеловодного реактора исследовались в ряде стран. Затем производство таких реакторов сосредоточилось главным образом в Канаде отчасти из-за ее обширных запасов урана.
Translate the following information into English:
В активной зоне теплового реактора должен находиться замедлитель - вещество, ядро которого имеют малое массовое число. В качестве замедлителя применяют графит, тяжелую и легкую воду, бериллий, органические жидкости. Тепловой реактор может работать даже на естественном уране, если замедлителем служит тяжелая вода или графит. При других замедлителях необходимо использовать обогащенный уран. От степени обогащения топлива зависят необходимые критические размеры реактора и с увеличением степени обогащения они меньше. Существенным недостатком реакторов на тепловых нейтронах является потеря медленных нейтронов в результате захвата их замедлителем, теплоносителем и конструкционными материалами. Поэтому в таких реакторах в качестве замедлителя, теплоносителя и конструкционных материалов необходимо использовать вещества с малыми сечениями захвата медленных нейтронов.
LESSON # 5
THERMAL FISSION REACTORS
The basic concept of a nuclear reactor is simple: assemble a critical mass of fissionable material and adjust its criticality to maintain a steady fission rate. But what should the fissionable material be? In a fission bomb, it must be relatively pure 235 U or 239 Pu. But in a fission reactor, it can be a mixture of 235 U and 238 U. It can even be natural uranium. The trick is to use thermal neutrons - slow moving neutrons that have only the kinetic energy associated with the local temperature.
In a fission bomb, 238 U is a serious problem because it captures the fast moving neutrons emitted by fissioning U235 nuclei. Natural uranium can’t sustain a chain reaction because its many U238 nuclei gobble up most of the fast moving neutrons before they can induce fissions in the rare 235 U nuclei. The uranium must be enriched, so that it contains more than the natural abundance of 235 U.
But slow moving neutrons have a different experience as they travel through natural uranium. For complicated reasons, the 235 U nuclei seek out slow moving neutrons and capture them with unusual efficiency. 235 U nuclei are so good at catching slow moving neutrons that they easily win out over the more abundant 23 8U nuclei. Even in natural uranium, a slow moving neutron is more likely to be caught by a 235 U nucleus than it is by a 238 U nucleus. As a result, it’s possible to sustain a nuclear fission chain reaction in natural uranium if all of the neutrons are slow moving.
But the previous paragraph seems to be hypothetical because 235 U nuclei emit fast moving neutrons when they fission. That’s why pure natural uranium can’t be used in a fission bomb. However, most nuclear reactors don’t use pure natural uranium. They use natural uranium plus another material that’s called a moderator. The moderator’s job is to slow the neutrons down so that 235 U nuclei can grab them. A fast moving neutron from a fissioning 235 U nucleus enters the moderator, rattles around for about a thousandth of a second, and emerges as a slow moving neutron, one with only thermal energy left. It then induces fission in another 235 U nucleus. Once the moderator is present, even natural uranium can sustain a chain reaction! Reactors that carry out their chain reactions with slow moving or thermal neutrons are called thermal fission reactors.
To be a good moderator, a material must simply remove energy and momentum from the neutrons without absorbing them. When a fission neutron leaves a good moderator, it has only thermal energy left. The best moderators are nuclei that rarely or never absorb neutrons and don’t fall apart during collisions with them. Hydrogen (1H), deuterium (2H), helium (4He), and carbon (12C) are all good moderators. When a fast moving neutron hits the nucleus of one of these atoms, the collision resembles that be
tween two billiard balls. Because the fast moving neutron transfers some of its energy and momentum to the nucleus, the neutron slows down while the nucleus speeds up.
Water, heavy water (water containing the heavy isotope of hydrogen: deuterium or 2H), and graphite (carbon) are the best moderators for nuclear reactors. They slow neutrons down to thermal speeds without absorbing many of them. Of these moderators, heavy water is the best because it slows the neutrons quickly yet doesn’t absorb them at all. However, heavy water is expensive because only 0.015% of hydrogen atoms are deuterium and separating that deuterium from ordinary hydrogen is difficult.
Graphite moderators were used in many early reactors because graphite is cheap and easy to work with. However, graphite is a less efficient moderator than heavy water, so graphite reactors had to be big. Furthermore, graphite can bum and was partly responsible for two of the world’s three major reactor accidents. Normal or “light” water is cheap, safe, and an efficient moderator, but it absorbs enough neutrons that it can’t be used with natural uranium. For use in a light water reactor, uranium must be enriched slightly, to about 2-3% 235 U.
The core of a typical thermal fission reactor consists of small uranium oxide (U02) fuel pellets, separated by layers of moderator (Fig. 1). A neutron released by a fissioning 235 U nucleus usually escapes from its fuel pellet, slows down in the moderator, and then induces fission in a 235 U nucleus in another fuel pellet. By absorbing some of these neutrons, the control rods determine whether the whole core is subcritical, critical, or supercritical. The 238 U nuclei are basically spectators in the reactor since most of the fissioning occurs in the 235 U nuclei.
Fig.
1 - The core of a thermal fission reactor consists of uranium
pellets, interspersed with a moderator that slows the fission
neutrons to thermal energies. Neutron-absorbing control rods are
inserted into the core to control the fission rate. A cooling fluid
such as water flows through the core to extract heat.
Fig.2.
A cutaway drawing of the fission reactor.
In a practical thermal fission reactor, something must extract the heat released by nuclear fission. In many reactors, cooling water passes through the core at high speeds. Heat flows into this water and increases its temperature. In a boiling water reactor, the water boils directly in the reactor core, creating high-pressure steam that drives the turbines of an electric generator. In a pressurized water reactor, the water is under enormous pressure so it can’t boil. Instead, it’s pumped to a heat exchanger outside the
reactor. This heat exchanger transfers heat to water in another pipe, which boils to create the high-pressure steam that drives a generator.
When properly designed, a water-cooled thermal fission reactor is inherently stable. The cooling water is actually part of the moderator. If the reactor overheats and the water escapes, there will no longer be enough moderator around to slow the fission neutrons down. The fast moving neutrons will be absorbed by U238 nuclei and the chain reaction will slow or stop.
WORDLIST:
Thermal fission reactor тепловой реактор, реактор
на тепловых (медленных) нейтронах
moderator замедлитель; модератор
fast moving neutron быстрый нейтрон
momentum импульс, количество движения
fuel pellet топливная таблетка
sodium dioxide перекись натрия
low melting point низкая точка плавления
heat transfer medium теплопередающая среда
reactivity химическая активность, реактивность
EXERCISES:
