- •Internal combustion engine
- •Give equivalents to the following words and word combinations:
- •Translate the following sentences into Russian:
- •Using the English-Russian dictionary translate the following text
- •Into Russian:
- •IV. Translate the following information into English:
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- •Explain and translate the following definitions of the car body elements:
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- •Be ready to talk and discuss the general structure of a ship
- •Uss Nimitz’s catapult 1
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- •Inspecting a used car
- •Incandescent lighting - освещение лампами накаливания
- •Answer and translate the following questions:
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- •Various definitions
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- •I. Translate the following sentences:
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- •Be ready to talk about the power supply at your home.
- •Introduction to power electronics
- •I. Answer the following questions:
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- •Into Russian:
- •Translate the following text: Conductors
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- •Translate into English: Теория цепей
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- •Introduction to radar fundamentals
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- •Put 10 questions to the text and answer them:
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- •Read and translate the list of chemical elements with their symbols and atomic number: (in alphabetical order)
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- •Put 6 questions to the text and answer them:
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- •Translate the following text and he ready to discuses properties of elements: Chemical properties of elements
- •Vanderwaals radius
- •Ionic radius
- •Isotopes
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- •Classification by Structural Change
- •Classification by Reaction Type
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- •Reaction Characteristics
- •Factors that Influence Reactions
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- •Translate the following text into English: Насыщенные углеводороды
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- •Be ready to answer questions on the text and talk about the refinery presses.
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- •Interface поверхность раздела; граница
- •Viscosity
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- •Translate the following text and be ready to discuss it: crude oil pretreatment (desalting).
- •Electrostatic desalting.
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- •Improving the quality of petroleum products
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- •Translate into Russian: The Physics of Oil Refineries
- •Discussion of the refinery process. Prepare the brief report on one of the theme topics.
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- •Introduction to nuclear power
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- •Inside the reactor
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- •Give equivalents to the terms on the fig.2 using technical dictionaries.
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- •Translate into English: Устройство энергетических ядерных реакторов.
- •Put several questions to the text above and answer them:
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- •Translate the following extract into Russian:
- •To check yourself try to translate the following text at sight:
- •Introduction to the almr/prism
- •Translate the following information into English: хранение ядерного топлива
- •Work area
- •Electrical safety
- •Power tool use and care
- •Service
- •Рабочее место
- •Поддерживайте чистоту и порядок на Вашем рабочем месте.
- •Меры безопасности при подключении к электросети.
- •Указания по безопасности
- •Использование инструмента и уход за ним.
- •Important safety instructions
- •Translate into English:
- •Устройство и принцип работы р ис. 1. Внешний вид аппарата.
- •6 Claims, 5 Drawing Figures exhaust gas recirculation apparatus for engine with turbocharger
- •Read the patent given above, identify its parts and be ready to comment on peculiarities of their translation. 2. Translate the following extract into English:
- •Beltline: The horizontal area of the body along the door just below the side-window glass.
- •Abstract
- •Description
Translate the following text into English:
Атомная электростанция (АЭС) - электростанция, в которой атомная (ядер- ная) энергия преобразуется в электрическую энергию. На АЭС внутренняя энергия, выделяемая при делении ядер некоторых тяжелых элементов (U-235, Р-239), используется для получения водяного пара. Последний, как и в обычных тепловых электростанций, приводит во вращение вал паровой турбины и турбогенератора.
Генератором энергии на АЭС является атомный реактор. Ядерный реактор
устройство, в активной зоне которого осуществляется управляемая цепная реак •
ция деления ядер тяжелых элементов, в результате которой происходит контролируемое выделение ядерной энергии.
Ядерные реакторы используются:
для выработки электрической энергии;
для научных исследований;
для воспроизводства ядерного топлива
Ядерные реакторы различаются:
по энергии нейтронов, вызывающих деление ядер: ядерные реакторы на тепловых (медленных) и быстрых нейтронах;
по характеру распределения ядерного топлива: гомогенные и гетерогенные;
по используемому замедлителю: графитовые, водо-водяные и др.;
по назначению: энергетические, исследовательские и т.д.
Translate the following extract into English:
Комплекс работ в отрасли по производству ядерного топлива образует ядерно- топливный цикл (ЯТЦ), который реализуется на технологически связанных предприятиях и в объединениях, выполняющих крупномасштабные работы по добыче и переработке сырья (прежде всего уранового), производству ядерных материалов и веществ в широком ассортименте (в том числе уникальных и особо чистых), изготовлению из них узлов, агрегатов и систем для атомной энергетики, ядерного оружия и установок военного назначения, строительству и эксплуатации крупных атомных объектов, переработке и регенерации облученного ядерного топлива на основе безопасных технологий обезвреживания радиоактивных отходов, их локализации и захоронения.
Ядерно-топливный цикл (ЯТЦ) охватывает деятельность большой группы предприятий атомной промышленности, изготовляющих в едином цикле ядерное топливо для отечественных атомных станций, а также для поставки на зарубежные рынки. Условия развития ядерной энергетики в ближайшее десятилетие в значительной мере определяются тенденциями в совершенствовании ЯТЦ.
ЯТЦ является фундаментом ядерной энергетики и производства ЯБП (ЯЗ). Этим обеспечивается целостность атомной отрасли.
LESSON # 4
NUCLEAR FISSION REACTORS
Weapons weren’t the only possibilities open to nuclear scientists and engineers at the end of the 1930’s. While nuclear fission chain reactions and thermonuclear fusion were clearly ways to unleash phenomenal destructive energy, they could also provide virtually limitless sources of useful energy. By controlling the same nuclear reactions that occur in nuclear weapons, people have since managed to extract nuclear energy for constructive uses. In the half-century since their conception, nuclear fission reactors have developed into a fairly mature technology and have become one of our major sources of energy. Nuclear fusion power remains an elusive goal, but efforts continue to harness this form of nuclear energy as well.
A
This slow assembly of a critical mass is the basis for nuclear fission reactors. Their principal product is heat, which is often used to generate electricity. Fission reactors are
ssembling a critical mass of uranium doesn’t always cause a nuclear explosion. In fact, it’s rather hard to cause a big explosion. The designers of the atomic bomb had to assemble not just a critical mass but a supercritical mass and they had to do it in much less than a millionth of a second. That’s not something that happens easily or by accident. It’s much easier to reach a critical mass slowly, in which case the uranium will simply become very hot. It may ultimately explode from overheating, but it will not vaporize everything in sight.
Fig.2
Chain reaction and moderation of neutrons
much simpler to build and operate than fission bombs because they don’t require such purified fissionable materials. In fact, with the help of some clever tricks, nuclear reactors can even be made to operate with natural uranium.
Let’s begin by showing that a fission chain reaction doesn’t always lead to an explosion. What’s important is just how fast the fission rate increases. In an atomic bomb, it increases breathtakingly quickly. At detonation, the fissionable material is far above the critical mass so the average fission induces not just one, but perhaps two, subsequent fissions. With only about 10 ns (10 nanoseconds) between one fission and the two it induces, the fission rate may double every 10 ns. In less than a millionth of a second, most of the nuclei in the material undergo fission, releasing their energy before the material has time to blow apart.
But things aren’t so dramatic right at critical mass, where the average fission induces just one subsequent fission. Since each generation of fissions simply reproduces itself, the fission rate remains essentially constant. Only spontaneous fissions cause it to rise at all. The fissionable material steadily releases thermal energy and that energy can be used to power an electric generator.
A nuclear reactor contains a core of fissionable material. Because of the way in which this core is assembled, it’s very close to a critical mass. Several neutron-absorbing rods, called control rods, which are inserted into the reactor’s core, determine whether it’s above or below critical mass. Pulling the control rods out of the core increases the chance that each neutron will induce a fission and moves the core toward supercritical- ity. Dropping the control rods into the core increases the chance that each neutron will be absorbed before it can induce a fission and moves the core toward subcriticality.
A nuclear reactor uses feedback to maintain the fission rate at the desired level. If the fission rate becomes too low, the control system slowly pulls the control rods out of the core to increase the fission rate. If the fission rate becomes too high, the control
system drops the control rods into the core to decrease the fission rate. It’s like driving a car. If you’re going too fast, you ease off the gas pedal. If you are going too slowly, you push down on the gas pedal.
The car driving analogy illustrates another important point about reactors. Both cars and reactors respond relatively slowly to movements of their controls. It would be hard to drive a car that instantly stopped when you lifted your foot off the gas pedal and leaped to supersonic speed when you pushed your foot down. Similarly, it would be impossible to operate a reactor that immediately shut down when you dropped the control rods in and instantly exploded when you pulled the control rods out.
But reactors, like cars, don’t respond quickly to movements of the control rods. That’s because the final release of neutrons following a fission is slow. When a 23 5U nucleus fissions, it promptly releases an average of 2.47 neutrons which induce other fissions within a thousandth of a second. But some of the fission fragments are unstable nuclei that decay and release neutrons long after the original fission. On average, each 23 5U fission eventually produces 0.0064 of these delayed neutrons, which then go on to induce other fissions. It takes seconds or minutes for these delayed neutrons to appear and they slow the response of the reactor. The reactor’s fission rate can’t increase quickly because it takes a long time for the delayed neutrons to build up. The fission rate can’t decrease quickly because it takes a long time for the delayed neutrons to go away.
To further ease the operation of modem nuclear reactors, they are designed to be stable and self-regulating. This self-regulation ensures that the core automatically becomes sub critical if it overheats. As we’ll see later on, this self-regulation was absent in the design of Chernobyl Reactor Number 4.
WORDLIST:
Critical mass критическая масса
nuclear fission reactor ядерный реактор деления
nuclear fusion power термоядерная энергия
nuclear explosion ядерный (атомный) взрыв
slow assembly медленно действующая сборка
purified fissionable material очищенный (высококонцентрированный)
делящийся материал (вещество) reactor core активная зона ядерного реактора
neutron-absorbing rod поглощающие стержни нейтронов
control rod управляющий стержень
supercriticality сверхкритичность;
сверхкритическая масса feedback (control) обратная связь управления
delayed neutron запаздывающий нейтрон
self-regulation автоматическое регулирование
primary circuit (loop) первичный( внутренний) контур
heat exchanger теплообменник
secondary circuit вторичный (внешний) контур
reactor vessel корпус реактора
fuel assembly топливная сборка
EXPRESSIONS:
To operate with natural uranium - работать на природном уране; to slow the response of the reactor-замедлять ответные действия(срабатывание) реактора.
Pulling the control rods out of the core increases the chance that each neutron will induce fission and moves the core toward supercriticality. - При извлечении управляющих стержней из активной зоны увеличивается вероятность того, что каждый нейтрон вызовет деление, что приведёт к образованию сверхкритичности реактора.
EXERSISES:
