1. Give equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

Detect height and distance, поисковая PJTC, land masses, to guide missiles to target, угол наклона, to determine the positions of ships, управление воздушным движением, радиовысотомер, altitude, height finder, истинный пеленг, airborne object, дальнее наблюдение, shipboard radar, elevation angle, clutter, echo, track radar, contact.

2. Put 10 questions to the text and answer them:

a) How can you define the difference between a radar and radio set?

Please, continue...

3. Translate into Russian the following text:

Air-Search Radar

Air-search radar systems initially detect and determine the position, course, and speed of air targets in a relatively large area. The maximum range of air-search radar can exceed 300 miles, and the bearing coverage is a complete 360-degree circle. Air-search radar systems are usually divided into two categories, based on the amount of position informa­tion supplied. Radar sets that provide only range and bearing information are referred to as two-dimensional, or 2D, radars. Radar sets that supply range, bearing, and height are

called three-dimensional, or 3D, radars. Relatively low transmitter frequencies are used in 2D search radars to permit long-range transmissions with minimum attenuation. Wide pulse widths and high peak power are used to aid in detecting small objects at great dis­tances. Low pulse-repetition rates are selected to permit greater maximum range. A wide vertical-beam width is used to ensure detection of objects from the surface to relatively high altitudes and to compensate for pitch and roll of own ship. The output characteristics of specific air-search radars are classified; therefore, they will not be discussed.

Air-search radar systems are used as early-warning devices because they can detect approaching enemy aircraft or missiles at great distances. In hostile situations, early de­tection of the enemy is vital to a successful defense against attack. Antiaircraft defenses in the form of shipboard guns, missiles, or fighter planes must be brought to a high degree of readiness in time to repel an attack. Range and bearing information, provided by air-search radars, used to initially position a fire-control tracking radar on a target. Another function of the air-search radar system is guiding combat air patrol (CAP) air­craft to a position suitable to intercept an enemy aircraft. In the case of aircraft control, the guidance information is obtained by the radar operator and passed to the aircraft by either voice radio or a computer link to the aircraft.

4. Translate into English:

PJIC — это радиоэлектронное устройство, предназначенное для обнаруже­ния и определения местоположения объектов в воздухе, на море и на суше путем облучения их радиоволнами. Современные радары не только обнаруживают от­дельные объекты, но и указывают расстояние до них, определяют их положение в пространстве, размер и форму, скорость и направление движения. Существует большое количество различных радиолокационных станций, но все они состоят из следующих основных элементов: передатчика, приёмника, антенны, синхрони­затора (timer) и, конечно, источника питания.

По способу локации РЛС различают активные или с активным ответом и пас­сивные станции.

Действие активной РЛС основано на излучении в направлении объекта пря­мого радиолокационного сигнала и приеме отраженного от объекта эхо-сигнала. Примерами станций с активным ответом являются радиолокационный маяк и ра­бота системы опознавания «свой-чужой». А радиолокационная станция с пассив­ным ответом не имеет передающего устройства, и в качестве сигналов от объек­тов используется их естественное излучение.

ADDITIONAL MATERIALS:

HEIGHT-FINDING SEARCH RADAR

The primary function of a height-finding radar (sometimes referred to as a three-co­ordinate or 3D radar) is that of computing accurate ranges, bearings, and altitudes of air­

craft targets detected by air-search radars. Height-finding radar is also used by the ship’s air controllers to direct CAP aircraft during interception of air targets. Modem 3D radar is often used as the primary air-search radar. This is because of its high accuracy and because the maximum ranges are only slightly less than those available from 2D radar.

The range capability of 3D search radar is limited to some extent by an operating frequency that is higher than that of 2D radar. This disadvantage is partially offset by higher output power and a beam width that is narrower in both the vertical and horizontal planes.

The 3D radar system transmits several narrow beams to obtain altitude coverage and, for this reason, compensation for roll and pitch must be provided for shipboard installations to ensure accurate height information.

Applications of height-finding radars include the following: — Obtaining range, bearing, and altitude data on enemy aircraft and missiles to assist in the control of CAP aircraft — Detecting low-flying aircraft — Determining range to distant land mass­es — Tracking aircraft over land — Detecting certain weather phenomena — Tracking weather balloons — Providing precise range, bearing, and height information for fast, accurate initial positioning of fire-control tracking radars

TRACKING RADAR

Radar that provides continuous positional data on a target is called tracking radar. Most tracking radar systems used by the military are also fire-control radar; the two names are often used interchangeably.

Fire-control tracking radar systems usually produce a very narrow, circular beam.

Fire-control radar must be directed to the general location of the desired target because of the narrow-beam pattern. This is called the DESIGNATION phase of equip­ment operation. Once in the general vicinity of the target, the radar system switches to the ACQUISITION phase of operation. During acquisition, the radar system searches a small volume of space in a prearranged pattern until the target is located. When the target is located, the radar system enters the TRACK phase of operation. Using one of several possible scanning techniques, the radar system automatically follows all target motions. The radar system is said to be locked on to the target during the track phase. The three sequential phases of operation are often referred to as MODES and are com­mon to the target-processing sequence of most fire-control radars.

Typical fire-control radar characteristics include a very high prf, a very narrow pulse width, and a very narrow beam width. These characteristics, while providing ex­treme accuracy, limit the range and make initial target detection difficult.

AIRBORNE RADAR

Airborne radar is designed especially to meet the strict space and weight limitations that are necessary for all airborne equipment. Even so, airborne radar sets develop the same peak power as shipboard and shore-based sets.

As-with shipboard radar, airborne radar sets come in many models and types to serve many different purposes. Some of the sets are mounted in blisters (or domes) that form part of the fuselage; others are mounted in the nose of the aircraft.

In fighter aircraft, the primary mission of a radar is to aid in the search, interception, and destruction of enemy aircraft. This requires that the radar system have a tracking feature. Airborne radar also has many other purposes. The following are some of the general classifications of airborne radar: search, intercept and missile control, bombing, navigation, and airborne early warning.

IFF — IDENTIFICATION, FRIEND OR FOE

Originated in WWII for just that purpose — a way for our radars to identify friend aircraft from enemy aircraft by assigning a unique identifier code to friend aircraft tran­sponders.

The system is considered a secondary radar system since it operates completely dif­ferently and independently of the primary radar system that tracks aircraft skin returns only, although the same CRT display is frequently used for both.

The system was initially intended to distinguish between enemy and friend but has evolved such that the term «IFF» commonly refers to all modes of operation, including civil and foreign aircraft use.

There are four major modes of operation currently in use by military aircraft plus one submode. Mode 1 is a nonsecure low cost method used by ships to track aircraft and other ships. Mode 2 is used by aircraft to make carrier controlled approaches to ships during inclement weather. Mode 3 is the standard system also used by commercial aircraft to relay their position to ground controllers throughout the world for air traffic control (АТС). Mode 4 is secure encrypted IFF (the only true method of determining friend or foe) Mode «С» is the altitude encoder.

The non-secure codes are manually set by the pilot but assigned by the air traffic controller.

A cross-band beacon is used, which simply means that the interrogation pulses are at one frequency and the reply pulses are at a different frequency. 1030 MHz and 1090 MHz is a popular frequency pair used in the U. S.

The secondary radar transmits a series of selectable coded pulses. The aircraft tran­sponder receives and decodes the interrogation pulses. If the interrogation code is cor­rect, the aircraft transponder transmits a different series of coded pulses as a reply

The advantage of the transponder is that the coded pulses «squawked» (передавать сигналы ответчика) by the aircraft transponders after being interrogated might typi­cally be transmitted at a 10 watt ERP (effective radiated power), which is much stronger than the microwatt skin return to the primary radar. Input power levels may be on the order of several hundred watts.

The transponder antenna is low gain (с малым усилением) so that it can receive and reply to a radar from any direction.

An adjunct to the IFF beacon is the altitude encoding transponder known as mode С — all commercial and military aircraft have them, but a fair percentage of general aviation light aircraft do not because of cost. The number of transponder installations rises around many large metropolitan areas where they are required for safety (easier identification of aircraft radar tracks).

Air traffic control primary radars are similar to the two dimensional search radar (working in azimuth and range only) and cannot measure altitude.

Радиолокационная станция (PJIC), (радиолокатор, радар), устройство для на­блюдения за различными объектами (целями) методами радиолокаиии. Основные узлы РЛС — передающее и приёмное устройства, расположенные в одном пунк­те (т. е. совмещенная РЛС) или в пунктах, удалённых друг от друга на некоторое (обычно значительное) расстояние (двух — и многопозиционные РЛС); в РЛС, применяемых для пассивной радиолокаиии. передатчик отсутствует. Антенна мо­жет быть общей для передатчика и приёмника (у совмещенной РЛС) или могут применяться раздельные антенны (у многопозиционных РЛС). Важная составная часть приёмного устройства РЛС (после собственно приёмника) — световой ин­дикатор на электроннолучевой трубке (ЭЛТ), а в современных (середины 70-х гг.) РЛС наряду с индикатором — ЦВМ, автоматизирующая многие операции по об­работке принятых сигналов. Основные характеристики РЛС: точность измерений, разрешающая способность, предельные значения ряда параметров (максимальная и минимальная дальность действия, сектор и время обзора и др.), помехоустойчи­вость. К основным характеристикам относят также мобильность РЛС, её массу, габариты, мощность электропитания, срок службы, количество обслуживающего персонала и многие др. эксплуатационные параметры.

Основные типы РЛС. РЛС различают прежде всего по конкретным задачам, выполняемым ими автономно или в комплексе средств, с которыми они взаимо­действуют, например: РЛС систем управления воздушным движением, РЛС обна­ружения или наведения зенитных управляемых ракет систем ПВО, РЛС для поис­ка космических летательных аппаратов (КЛА) и сближения с ними, самолётные РЛС кругового или бокового обзора и т. д. Специфика решения отдельных задач и их широкий спектр привели к большому разнообразию типов РЛС. Например, для повышения точности стрельбы по самолётам в головках зенитных снарядов устанавливают миниатюрные РЛС, измеряющие расстояние от снаряда до объек­та и приводящие в действие (на определённом расстоянии) взрыватель снаряда; для своевременного предупреждения самолёта о приближении со стороны его «хвоста» др. самолёта на нём устанавливают РЛС «защиты хвоста», автоматичес­ки вырабатывающую предупредительный сигнал.

В зависимости от места установки РЛС различают наземные, морские, са­молётные, спутниковые РЛС и т. д. РЛС подразделяют также по техническим ха­рактеристикам: по несущей частоте (рабочему диапазону длин волн) — на РЛС метрового, дециметрового (ДМ), сантиметрового (СМ), миллиметрового (ММ) и др. диапазонов; по методам и режимам работы — на РЛС импульсные и с не­прерывным излучением, когерентные и с некогерентным режимом работы и т.д.; по параметрам важнейших узлов РЛС — передатчика, приёмника, антенны и сис­темы обработки принятых сигналов, а также по др. техническим и тактическим параметрам РЛС.

LESSON # 4 RADAR GUN

To understand how radar detectors work, you first have to know what they’re de­tecting. The concept of measuring vehicle speed with radar is very simple. A basic speed gun is just a radio transmitter and receiver combined into one unit. A radio transmitter is a device that oscillates an electrical current so the voltage goes up and down at a certain frequency. This electricity generates electromagnetic energy, and when the current is oscillated, the energy travels through the air as an electromagnetic wave. A transmitter also has an amplifier that increases the intensity of the electromagnetic energy and an antenna that broadcasts it into the air.

A radio receiver is just the reverse of the transmitter: It picks up electromagnetic waves with an antenna and converts them back into an electrical current. At its heart, this is all radio is — the transmission of electromagnetic waves through space.

Radar is the use of radio waves to detect and monitor various objects. The simplest function of radar is to tell you how far away an object is. To do this, the radar device emits a concentrated radio wave and listens for any echo. If there is an object in the path of the radio wave, it will reflect some of the electromagnetic energy, and the radio wave will bounce back to the radar device. Radio waves move through the air at a constant speed (the speed of light), so the radar device can calculate how far away the object is based on how long it takes the radio signal to return.

Radar can also be used to measure the speed of an object, due to a phenomenon called Doppler shift. Like sound waves, radio waves have a certain frequency, the num­ber of oscillations per unit of time. When the radar gun and the car are both standing still, the echo will have the same wave frequency as the original signal. Each part of the signal is reflected when it reaches the car, mirroring the original signal exactly.

But when the car is moving, each part of the radio signal is reflected at a different point in space, which changes the wave pattern. When the car is moving away from the radar gun, the second segment of the signal has to travel a greater distance to reach the car than the first segment of the signal. As you can see in the diagram below, this has

the effect of «stretching out» the wave, or lowering its frequency. If the car is moving toward the radar gun, the second segment of the wave travels a shorter distance than the first segment before being reflected. As a result, the peaks and valleys of the wave get squeezed together: The frequency increases.

Based on how much the frequency changes, a radar gun can calculate how quickly a car is moving toward it or away from it. If the radar gun is used inside a moving police car, its own movement must also be factored in. For example, if the police car is going 50 miles per hour and the gun detects that the target is moving away at 20 miles per hour, the target must be driving at 70 miles per hour. If,the radar gun determines that the target is not moving toward or away from the police car, than the target is driving at exactly 50 miles per hour.

Radar (speed) gun — радиолокационный измеритель скорости

Radar detector — радарный детектор, антирадар

Translate the following text:

Radar system or technique for detecting the position, movement, and nature of a remote object by means of radio waves reflected from its surface. Although most radar units use microwave frequencies, the principle of radar is not confined to any particular frequency range. There are some radar units that operate on frequencies well below 100 megahertz (megacycles) and others that operate in the infrared range and above. The term radar, an acronym for radio detection and ranging, is also used to denote the ap­paratus for implementing the technique.

Principles of Radar

Radar involves the transmission of pulses of electromagnetic waves by means of a directional antenna; some of the pulses are reflected by objects that intercept them. The reflections are picked up by a receiver, processed electronically, and converted into visible form by means of a cathode-ray tube. The range of the object is determined by measuring the time it takes for the radar signal to reach the object and return. The object’s location with respect to the radar unit is determined from the direction in which the pulse was received. In most radar units the beam of pulses is continuously rotated at a constant speed, or it is scanned (swung back and forth) over a sector, also at a constant rate. The velocity of the object is measured by applying the Doppler principle: if the object is approaching the radar unit, the frequency of the returned signal is greater than the frequency of the transmitted signal; if the object is receding from the radar unit, the returned frequency is less; and if the object is not moving relative to the radar unit, the return signal will have the same frequency as the transmitted signal.

Applications of Radar

The information secured by radar includes the position and velocity of the object with respect to the radar unit. In some advanced systems the shape of the object may

also be determined. Commercial airliners are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings. Planes can land in fog at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, in which the plane’s flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio landing directions to the pilot. A ground-based radar system for guiding and landing aircraft by remote control was developed in 1960.

Radar is also used to measure distances and map geographical areas (shoran) and to navigate and fix positions at sea. Meteorologists use radar to monitor precipitation; it has become the primary tool for short-term weather forecasting and is also used to watch for severe weather such as thunderstorms and tornados. Radar can be used to study the planets and the solar ionosphere and to trace solar flares and other moving particles in outer space.

Various radar tracking and surveillance systems are used for scientific study and for defense. For the defense of North America the U. S. government developed (c. 1959—63) a radar network known as the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS), with radar installations in Thule, Greenland; Clear, Alaska; and Yorkshire, England. A radar system known as Space Detention and Tracking System (SPADATS), operated collab- oratively by the Canada and the U. S., is used to track earth-orbiting artificial satellites.

S olo S2 Cordless Radar Detector + La­ser Detector

A class of one. The Solo S2 is unquestionably the most sophisti­cated, high-performance cordless radar detector on the planet. For a cordless detector it’s little short of an engineering miracle. - radart- est.com Cordless Convenience

Never again must you choose between convenience and performance. The revolution­ary new cordless SOLO S2 radar and laser detector creates the most powerful combination of long range performance, and convenient battery operation ever - it’s simply amazing! No other radar detector provides the portable convenience and protection of the SOLO S2. It’s easy to own and operate. No more cords - just stick it to the windshield, turn it on, and you’re ready to go. The SOLO S2 cordless radar detector is ideal for the person who is con­stantly in and out of rental cars, or just wants the easiest-to-use radar and laser protection High-Efficiency Power Management The SOLO S2’s new power management circuit has also been redesigned to give you the longest battery life possible. It constantly watches the condition of your batteries and reminds you to replace them before it’s too late.

SOLO S2 uses only a fraction of the power used by conventional corded radar de­tectors. Using 2 standard AA batteries (included), the SOLO S2 provides months of nor­

mal driving protection. A new low-battery warning circuit keeps constant watch on the condition of the batteries, and provides you with both audible and visual alerts before they need to be replaced. We’ve also added a new Auto. Power feature (programmable), which conserves battery life by automatically turning your SOLO S2 off when not in use. The completely redesigned SOLO S2 provides long-range warning on all radar bands, including conventional and “instant-on” X-band, К-band, and Superwide Ka-band. Pat­ented Digital Signal Processing (DSP) provides the longest warning possible without con­stant false alarms. A new waveguide radar antenna, a new low-powered digital receiver, and a high-speed microprocessor with Escort’s proprietary software, all run efficiently on just two standard AA batteries. The results are impressive, including an astonishing 400% improvement in detection range on Ka-band over other cordless radar detectors.

Ultra-Performance Laser Detection The SOLO S2 uses multiple low-noise laser sensors to provide long-range warning, and the widest field of view against laser en­counters. Programmable Features

SOLO S2 packs 10 user programmable features, allowing you to customize it for your specific driving style. Your preferred settings are stored in memory, even when you replace batteries. Or, simply use SOLO S2’s factory settings, allowing you to just turn it on and go.

High-Resolution Graphic LCD Display

A new, brilliant LCD display makes the SOLO S2 radar and laser detector intuitive to use, and easy to understand. Each radar, laser and SWS signal is identified and com­municated to you with clear messages. Signal strength is provided using three different types of meters (programmable), while the backlit display automatically adjusts for optimum viewing.

Safety Radar Signals

SOLO S2 provides unique audible and visual alerts for Safety Warning System (SWS) signals. These alerts (up to 64 messages) will keep you informed of road hazards in areas using this technology.

One Step Ahead

Speed measuring devices continue to improve through the use of new technology. SOLO S2’s innovative design allows the on-board microprocessor to be reprogrammed to detect new radar and laser units. While other manufacturers’ models become obso­lete, the SOLO S2’s software can be updated to protect you against the latest threats.

Conies Fully Equipped

The Cordless SOLO S2 comes ready to drive with a comprehensive Owner’s Man­ual, quick-release adjustable windshield mount, built-in earphone jack, travel case, and a set of AA batteries

CHAPTERV CHEMISTRY

LESSON # 1

What is the Periodic Table of The Elements?

The periodic table is the most important chemistry reference there is. It arranges all the known elements in an informative array. Elements are arranged left to right and top to bottom in order of increasing atomic number. Order generally coincides with increasing atomic mass.

The different rows of elements are called periods. The period number of an ele­ment signifies the highest energy level an electron in that element occupies (in the un­excited state). The number of electrons in a period increases as one traverses down the periodic table; therefore, as the energy level of the atom increases, the number of energy sub-levels per energy level increases.

People also gain information from the periodic table by looking at how it is put together. By examining an element’s position on the periodic table, one can infer the electron configuration. Elements that lie in the same column on the periodic table (called a “group”) have identical valance electron configurations and consequently behave in a similar fashion chemically. For instance, all the group 18 elements are inert gases. The periodic table contains an enormous amount of important information. People familiar with how the table is put together can quickly determine a significant amount of infor­mation about an element, even if they have never heard of it.

Element Groups (Families)
Alkali Earth	Alkaline Earth	Transition Metals
Rare Earth	Other Metals	Metalloids
Non-Metals	Halogens	Noble Gases

Chemistry in a Nutshell

• The Atom

All macroscopic matter is made out of many tiny particles called atoms. The study of how these atoms interact is called Chemistry.

• Subatomic Particles

The three particles that make up atoms are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are heavier than electrons and reside in the “nucleus,” which is the center of the atom. Protons have a positive electrical charge, and neutrons have no electrical charge. Electrons are extremely lightweight and are negatively charged. They exist in a cloud that surrounds the atom. The electron cloud has a radius 10,000 times greater than the nucleus.

• The Nucleus

The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons in a cluster. Vir­tually all the mass of the atom resides in the nucleus. The nucleus is held together by the tight pull of what is known to chemists and physicists as the “strong force.” This force between the protons and neutrons overcomes the repulsive electrical force that would, according to the rules of electricity, push the protons apart otherwise.

• Electrons

The electron is the lightweight particle that “orbits” outside of the atomic nucleus. Chemical bonding is essentially the interaction of electrons from one atom with the electrons of another atom. The magnitude of the charge on an electron is equal to the charge on a proton. Electrons surround the atom in pathways called orbitals. The inner orbitals surrounding the atom are spheri­cal but the outer orbitals are much more complicated.

• Chemical Bonding

Chemically bonding occurs when two particles can exchange or combine their outer electrons in such a way that is energetically favorable. An en­ergetically favorable state can be seen as analogous to the way a dropped rock has a natural tendency to fall to the floor. When two atoms are close to each other and their electrons are of the correct type, it is more energetically favorable for them to come together and share electrons (become "bonded") than it is for them to exist as individual, separate atoms. When the bond oc­curs, the atoms become a compound. Like the rock falling to the floor, they "fall" together naturally.

Transition Metals

The 38 elements in groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table are called “transition metals”. As with all metals, the transition elements are both ductile and malleable, and conduct electricity and heat. The interesting thing about transition metals is that their valence electrons, or the electrons they use to combine with other elements, are present in more than one shell. This is the reason why they often exhibit several common oxida­tion states. There are three noteworthy elements in the transition metals family. These elements are iron, cobalt, and nickel, and they are the only elements known to produce a magnetic field.

The Transition Metals are:

Scandium	Molybdenum
Titanium	Technetium
Vanadium	Ruthenium
Chromium	Rhodium
Manganese	Palladium
Iron	Silver
Cobalt	Cadmium
Nickel	Hafnium
Copper	Tantalum
Zinc	Tungsten
Yttrium	Rhenium
Zirconium	Osmium
Niobium	Iridium
Gold	Barium
	Hassnium
Mercury	Meitnerium
Rutherfordium	Ununnilium
Dubnium	Unununium
Seaborgium	Ununbium

Noble Gases

The six noble gases are found in group 18 of the Periodic Table. These elements were considered to be inert gases until the 1960’s because their oxidation number of 0 prevents the noble gases from forming compounds readily. All noble gases have the maximum number of electrons possible in their outer shell (2 for Helium, 8 for all oth­ers) making them stable.

They are: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon.

Other Metals:

The 7 elements classified as other metals are located in group 13, 14 and 15, while these elements are ductile and malleable they are not the same as the transition ele­ments. These elements, unlike their transition elements, do not exhibit variable oxida­tion states, and their valence electrons are only present in their outer shell. All of these elements are solid, have a relatively high density, and are opaque. They have oxidation numbers of +3, +/- 4 and -3. They are:

Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Tin, Thallium, Lead and Bismuth

WORD LIST

Periodic number периодический номер

(ряд элементов)

atomic number порядковый (атомный) номер

atomic mass атомная масса

alkali earth щелокоземельный

transition metals металл переходной валентности

rare earth редкоземельные элементы (РЗЭ)

noble gas редкий (инертный) газ

metalloid металлоид

subatomic particle элементарная частица

cluster группа; скопление

molecular forces молекулярные силы (Vanderwaals forces)

chemical bound(ing) химическая связь

magnitude величина (заряда)

ductile & malleable ковкий и вязкий

oxidation state окислительное состояние; валентность

степени окисления

oxidation number степень окисления

EXERCISES