14. Electroanalytical Techniques

These techniques are based on interaction of electrical energy with matter. Various electroanalytical techniques such as pH meter, potentiometry, cyclic voltammetry is used to monitor environmental pollution.

Potential of an electrode deeping into a solution of an electrolyte depends on the activity of ions with which it is in equilibrium, therefore potential measurement can be used to monitor water pollution.

By the application of electrochemical oxidation or reduction many of the pollutants can be removed or rendered harmless. There are various types of ion selective electrodes used in environmental monitoring. Fluoride ion selective electrode is used to monitor concentration of fluoride in ground water. Excessive fluoride in drinking water causes harmful effects on the human health. Severity depends on the concentration. Permissible limit of fluoride in potable water is 1.0 ppm, which is acceptable up o 1.5 ppm in scarcity of other water sources (Iyer, 2002). The metal ion selective electrodes are used to estimate metal ions present. All these estimations depends on the potential developed by the electrode in contact with solution Cu⁺², Ag⁺², Pb⁺², Cd⁺² ions can be monitored by these electrodes.

Voltammetric methods such as anodic stripping voltammetry is used to monitor presence of heavy metal ions such as pb⁺² and Zn⁺². In this techniques the deposition of metal on to a hanging mercury drop electrode is carried out at 0.3 to 0.4 V more negative than the reduction potential of the metal concerned, under force convention. The deposition is followed by a voltammetric scan towards more the potential during which the metal in the mercury is oxidised and the resultant current is measured.

Amperometric titrations are used for the estimation of Pb⁺² ions, its principle is identical to the voltammetric measurement at a fixed potential. In this titration the voltage applied across the electrodes in kept constant and diffusion current passing through the cell is measured and ploted against the volume of reagent added.

Optical methods

These methods are based on interaction of eletromagnetic radiations with matter. Spectroscopic methods are most commonly used in environmental monitoring.

Various organic and inorganic pollutants can form coloured complex with suitable reagents. Such species can be detected and estimated using spectophotometer. For example Cr (VI) is toxic metal which is present in tannery effluents, can be estimated using diphenyl carbazide reagent. Ni (II) which is used as a catalyst is also toxic and can form coloured complex with DMG. (Dimethyl glyoxime) phenols present in the effluents of organic or pharmaceutical companies can be estimated using ferric ion solution. Phenols are common pollutants in waste water discharged from various industries especially from coke oven, coal, gasification and coal tar plants.

Petrolium refineries and synthetic resin and dye manufacturing units (Sharma and Kaur, 1994). They are determined to water for they creates bitter taste and undesirable odour even at low concentration. Moreover, they are harmful to mankind and other organism causing pain, renal irritation, severe shock and possibly death at higher concentration (Dey, 2002).

Relatively non toxic Fe (II) can be estimated using 1,10 phenonthrolin, pesticide residue are vary harmful and can be extracted by using suitable solvent and estimated using U.V. or I.R. spectrophotometry (Meshram et al., 2002).

Chemiluminescence occurs after excitation of a molecule or ion by the energy emitted during a chemical or biochemical reaction, in which the excited species is a product. In many cases the chemically excited energetic level of a molecule is identical to the energetic level that could have been attained by absorption of electromagnetic radiation. In some molecules, however the excited levels are not identical. Chmillimine scence can occur in the ultraviolet, visible or near- infrared region.

15.Write the methods of environmental protection.Under the method of protection refers to a set of technological, technical measures aimed at the reduction or complete elimination of pollution of the biosphere.

All methods are divided into:

- Active - directly affect the sources of pollution.

- Passive - are protective in nature, these methods are not related to the source of the contamination is formed methods of dealing with pollution.

Specifications are divided into the following methods:

- Direct methods - allow us to estimate the mass, volume, density and level of contamination directly in their sources of education.

- Indirect methods - minimize or eliminate the formation of harmful substances in the following environmental conditions.

These technical methods are called to perform tasks such as: replacement of toxic wastes non-toxic, recyclable waste exchange is not recyclable and creating low-waste technologies.

1. Ways to create a low-waste technologies.

Low-waste technology - an intermediate step before creating waste-free technology, which implies an approximation of the process to a closed cycle. When low-waste technology harmful effects on the environment does not exceed the level allowed by health authorities. Part of raw materials still become waste and is subject to long-term storage or disposal. And so, the need for the creation of low-waste technologies:

1) Creation of compact systems that allow maximum use of all the ingredients of raw materials and ensuring the MPC (maximum permissible concentration) emissions into the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

2) Create flowcharts with complete water circuit, allowing the company to reduce the need to clean natural water. Thereby preserving our natural water supplies are clean and intact. As we all you know - the water for us and our entire planet is a precious substance. Without that, our life in the future is not possible.

3) Create a power technology circuits with heat recovery, which resulted in some businesses to become energy producers.

4) Technological regimes, providing a range of products that can be used in the longer term.

It is worth noting, and passive methods, without which the idea of ​​the creation of low-waste technology solved a greater share of the meaning:

1) Rational allocation of pollution sources. It assumes territorial rational distribution of economic facilities, reducing the burden on the environment.

2) Localization of sources of pollution. Localization is achieved by using a variety of environmental technologies, technical systems and devices.

3) Clean emissions into the biosphere. For example: Air emissions containing harmful substances in vapor or aerosol form, to be cleaned without fail.

2. Rational allocation of pollution sources.

Sources of pollution are placed on land unsuitable for use with the / x based on the benefits of wind or the wind rose and the possible occurrence of inversions. Place for wastewater discharge can be located downstream of the river below the residential area, taking into account the reverse flow when pressure winds.

Locating the source of contamination involves the isolation and containment and sealing material source of pollution, shielding and absorption of energy pollution, dumping of waste. And so, because of all the above, we can note the following important points that are needed to achieve the rational distribution of the source of pollution:

1) The best choice of location for the construction of industrial facilities.

2) rational allocation of production in the plant.

3) A device for the purpose of high stacks dispersion of harmful substances into the atmosphere.

4) Establish the boundaries of sanitary protection zones.

16. Monitoring (prevention, tracking any objects or phenomena). In relation to the ecology purposes - supervision and the forecast of a condition of environment, an assessment of her changes under the influence of different types of activity of the person. The obtained information is used for an exception or reduction of probability of emergence of adverse ecological situations, protection of the natural and created by the person objects, preservation of the environment, health and wellbeing of people.

Distinguish several types of monitorings.

On influence scales monitoring happens spatial and temporary. On a territorial sign allocate local, regional, impaktny, basic (background), national and global (biospheric) monitoring. By the used methods - space, aviation, land. By methods of researches - chemical, physical, biological and others. Local monitoring usually belongs to separate objects, most often subject any intensive anthropogenous loadings. It can be forest, water, mountain and other objects. Regional monitoring covers areas, considerable on the area, which, as a rule, differ from next on an environment (for example, natural zones, landscape complexes, recreational territories around the cities, etc.). Impaktny monitoring - monitoring of regional and local anthropogenous influences in especially dangerous zones and places.

National monitoring is carried out in scales of the certain country. Basic (background) monitoring - supervision over the all-biospheric phenomena without imposing on them anthropogenous influences. Global (biospheric) monitoring sets as the purpose obtaining information on the biosphere in general or about separate biospheric processes (climate change, change of chemism of the atmosphere, supervision over the ozone screen, etc.).

For global monitoring are widely used space supervision. The last are usually supplemented with land researches, for example, in biospheric reserves. Supervision from space give the chance to make idea of separate changes in the biosphere which at other methods don't come to light. Aviation supervision unlike space are, as a rule, focused on the regional or local phenomena. Are most often observed separate objects, for example, forest. Inventory of the woods is made with a certain frequency which depends on the purposes, for example, in 3-5 years at the accounting of forest resources and is more frequent at identification of the areas struck with wreckers, the fires or industrial emissions. Land monitoring is carried out for specification of the data obtained from space or aviation devices, and secondly for supervision which can't be executed by other methods: for example, definition of chemical or physical characteristics of a ground layer of air and soils, vegetation or waters. At land monitoring widely use biological methods of supervision. The last use as for direct supervision over a condition of objects, and through use naikboly types, sensitive to separate influences. Such types are called bioindicators.

As bioindicators lichens are widely used, and the method carries the name a likhenoindikation. High sensitivity of lichens to various pollution is connected with the fact that they absorb substances from the environment all over (as spongy material and with the minimum selectivity). For this reason, and also because of the slowed-down metabolism lichens, accumulating harmful substances, get poisoned and perish.

Except lichens, the sensitive indicator are the coniferous trees differing in high responsiveness on pollution (a pine, a fir-tree, a fir).

17. In many areas of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the environmental situation is deteriorating. The growth of industry, energy, transport and agriculture leads to a systematic increase in anthropogenic emissions into the environment. In significant areas, land is contaminated with chemicals and other substances and compounds, cluttering land with production and consumption wastes. The most characteristic is the contamination of land for territories adjacent to industrial enterprises, motor roads and oil pipelines. And at the present time, the Republic of Kazakhstan is still one of the countries of the world with the most difficult ecological situation, with acute environmental problems in the Republic of Kazakhstan. The current state of the environment is a consequence of the decades-long policy of an extensive approach to the development of productive forces and the exploitation of natural resources, while ignoring regional environmental problems. Transformation of the economy of Kazakhstan on market principles with the strengthening of raw materials orientation without due consideration for environmental restrictions has led to an even more exacerbating ecological situation, in which degradation of the natural environment has reached a catastrophic level, which threatens the national security of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Therefore, the problem of the formation of the system of environmental interests and the hierarchy of social values ​​on a natural historical basis and, accordingly, the establishment of the priority of the development of an environmentally sound strategy for the development of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the formation of an economic mechanism that reflects the requirements of environmental safety, emerged with all the urgency. In this regard, the use of the principles and the concept of sustainable development, recognized by the world community as the basic ideology for ensuring the economic, social and environmental balance of society, is especially relevant for the Republic of Kazakhstan. The lands of industrial centers of Kazakhstan, as a rule, are polluted with heavy metals. Significant role in the pollution of land in cities and other settlements belongs to road transport, the number of which in recent years has increased significantly. Enterprises of the oil and gas complex of the republic occupy one of the leading places in soil contamination with various chemical compounds.

Regions of oil and gas production are concentrated in the west and southwest of Kazakhstan - in the West Kazakhstan, Aktyubinsk, Atyrau, Mangistau, Kyzylorda regions.

One of the main sources of soil contamination is the discharge of oil into earthen barns, oil spills and water-oil mixture during pipeline ruptures, oil leakage to the surface of the earth during the production of well repair. The practice of flaring associated gas also causes significant environmental and economic damage. The increased thermal background and acidification of the environmental components around the deposits during the combustion of gas have a negative impact on the soil, vegetation, fauna of the areas adjacent to the oil complexes, contributing to the increase in the greenhouse effect.

When exploring and exploiting hydrocarbon fields around each drilling rig, vegetation is destroyed by 70-80% within a radius of 500-800 meters.

The problem of the influence of sulfur stored by LLP "Tengizchevroil" on the environment and public health is acute in Atyrau oblast. According to the information published by UNDP Kazakhstan in the review "Environment and Sustainable Development in Kazakhstan" (2004), technogenic pollution of land in the form of soil oil contamination was tolerated in Atyrau oblast on an area of ​​more than 1.3 million hectares, in some oil fields it Reaches a thickness of 10 meters.

The intensive development of the oil complex leads to the destruction of the natural ecological balance of the earth. The study of the soil cover at various deposits in the Atyrau region showed that the impact of oil and petroleum products leads to changes in the physicochemical and chemical properties of the soil.

18. The existing system of industrial environmental control (PEC) needs to be improved. First, it must be reformed its outdated legal, institutional and technical data, improve data quality, and expand their use in decision-making. The need to reform the current system recognizes the various stakeholders, including government agencies, industry and the public.

It is recommended that the reform aim to achieve the following key results:

- an unambiguous definition of terms and improvement of the legal framework;

- differentiation scope of the Industrial environmental control (IEC) in the case of large enterprises and small and medium-sized enterprises and its link with the terms of permits and mandatory rules of the common action;

- the establishment of clear requirements for the content IEC programs;

- increase the term of the IEC programs with the ability to change them if necessary, and the introduction of the post of operational requirements;

- a combination of different types of monitoring, the rejection of a comprehensive impact monitoring practices and adoption of different organizational forms of IEC for its better fit the resources available to businesses;

- the introduction of methodologically reliable methods to determine the type and frequency of monitoring;

- optimization of the cost of production environmental control;

- establishing common requirements for quality (accurate results) measurements and the development of data quality strategy;

- effective data management, reporting and constructive use of information in decision-making, including internal remedial measures;

- regular review and use of data IEC authorities and their public evaluation;

- more efficient use of data IEC in checks and enforcement in parallel with the creation of a system of incentives to comply with the requirements of enterprises of IEC.

Explanation of the basic concepts

In addition to the definition of industrial environmental control, presented in the introduction, in the legislation should be determined by the following basic concepts:

- “Installation” - a stationary technical unit on which the one or more activities at one and the same object, and that can have a negative impact on the environment.

- “Dimension” - a set of operations to determine the value of the parameter, implying an individual quantitative result.

- “Monitoring” is the systematic monitoring of changes in certain chemical or physical characteristics of the emission, discharge, flow or other parameters and technical indicators. In the context of industrial environmental control monitoring includes:

• monitoring of technological processes

• parameters for observation (e.g., pressure, temperature, flow rate) of the process to confirm that these parameters are within the permissible range;

• emission monitoring - monitoring of industrial emissions at source, i.e. monitoring of substances (emissions, effluents, waste) and factors affecting the installation on the environment;

• monitoring of the environment in the affected area controlled production - monitoring pollution levels in the vicinity of the enterprise and its zone of influence on ecosystems and human health.

- “Operator” (a business entity, the polluter) is a natural or legal person who is the owner or the head of a controlled installation and authorized to ensure compliance with environmental permit conditions.

19. Give the definition of basic principles of the interregional (international) level

Monitoring is a multi-level system. In chorological aspect typically isolated system (or subsystem) detailed, local, regional, national, and global levels

The lowest hierarchical level is the level of detailed monitoring implemented within small areas (plots), etc.

When a detailed monitoring system is merged into a larger network (for example, within an area, etc.), a local level monitoring system is formed. Local monitoring is intended to provide an assessment of the system changes in the wider area: the territory of the city district.

Local systems can be combined into larger ones - regional monitoring systems that cover the territories of regions within the province or region, or within several of them. Such regional monitoring systems, integrating data from observational networks that differ in approaches, parameters, tracking territories and periodicity, can adequately form complex assessments of the state of territories and give forecasts for their development.

Regional monitoring systems can be integrated within one state into a single national (or state) monitoring network, thus forming a national level) of the monitoring system. An example of such a system was the "Unified State System for Environmental Monitoring of the Russian Federation" (ESSEM) and its territorial subsystems, successfully created in the 90s of the twentieth century to adequately address the tasks of managing territories. However, after the Ministry of Ecology in 2002, USSEM was also abolished and currently there are only departmental-disparate observation networks in Russia, which does not allow to adequately solve the strategic tasks of managing the territories taking into account the ecological imperative.

Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task is to integrate national monitoring systems into a single intergovernmental network - the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS). This is the highest level of the global environmental monitoring system. Its purpose is to monitor changes in the environment on the Earth and its resources in general, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere of the Earth as a whole. While the creation of such a system in full, operating under the auspices of the United Nations, is the task of the future, since many states do not yet have their own national systems.

The global system for monitoring the environment and resources is designed to solve global environmental problems throughout the Earth, such as global warming, the problem of preserving the ozone layer, the forecast of earthquakes, conservation of forests, global desertification and soil erosion, floods, food and energy resources, An example of such a subsystem of environmental monitoring is the global observation network of Earth's seismic monitoring, which operates under the International Program for the Control of Foci earthquakes, etc..

20. Today the observation network of the sources of exposure and the condition of the biosphere spans the globe. The global of environmental monitoring system (GEMS) was created by joint efforts of the world community. The main provisions and objectives of the programme the GEMS were formulated in 1974 at the first intergovernmental meeting on monitoring. Priority was recognized as the organization of monitoring of environmental pollution, and causing its influence factors.

The monitoring system is implemented at several levels, which correspond to specifically designed programs:

‒ impact (study of environmental impacts at the local scale-I);

‒ regional (a manifestation of the migration and transformation of contaminants, combined effects of different factors specific to the economy of the region and transboundary transport - R);

‒ background (based on biosphere reserves, where any economic activities are prohibited - B).

* Extremely important a natural component of the stratosphere - the ozone acts as a pollutant (strong oxidant involved in the formation of photochemical smog) in the troposphere (the lower atmosphere). Program impact monitoring can be directed, for example, to study the characteristics of the release into the environment and scattering in it of pollutants contained in the exhaust gas or wastewater of a particular company. Subject to regional monitoring, as follows from the name itself, is the environment within that particular region. Finally, the background monitoring carried out in the framework of the international program "Man and biosphere", is intended to capture the background environment, which is necessary for further estimates of the levels of anthropogenic impact. Program observations are formed according to the principle of priority (subject to priority determination) of pollutants and integrated (reflecting the group of phenomena, processes or substances) characteristics. Classes of priority pollutants, established an expert way and taken in the GEMS, is shown in table 1.

The definition of priorities in the organization of monitoring systems depends on the purpose and objectives of specific programs: for example, in regional monitoring priority is given to urban water bodies - the sources of drinking water and spawning grounds of fish, so in relation to the media of observations in the first place, examine the air and water of freshwater reservoirs. The priority of ingredients is determined based on criteria that reflect toxic, radioactive or pathogenic properties of pollutants, the volume of release into the environment, transformation characteristics, the probability and magnitude of effects on humans and biota, and other factors such as, measurements, cost analysis, etc.

21. Industrial ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modelled as a network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and transform those resources into commodities which can be bought and sold to meet the needs of humanity. Industrial ecology seeks to quantify the material flows and document the industrial processes that make modern society function. Industrial ecologists are often concerned with the impacts that industrial activities have on the environment, with use of the planet's supply of natural resources, and with problems of waste disposal. Industrial ecology is a young but growing multidisciplinary field of research which combines aspects of engineering, economics, sociology, toxicology and the natural sciences.

Industrial ecology has been defined as a "systems-based, multidisciplinary discourse that seeks to understand emergent behaviour of complex integrated human/natural systems".The field approaches issues of sustainability by examining problems from multiple perspectives, usually involving aspects of sociology, the environment, economy and technology. The name comes from the idea that the analogy of natural systems should be used as an aid in understanding how to design sustainable industrial systems.One of the central principles of Industrial Ecology is the view that societal and technological systems are bounded within the biosphere, and do not exist outside of it. Ecology is used as a metaphor due to the observation that natural systems reuse materials and have a largely closed loop cycling of nutrients. Industrial Ecology approaches problems with the hypothesis that by using similar principles as natural systems, industrial systems can be improved to reduce their impact on the natural environment as well. The table shows the general metaphor. The Kalundborg industrial park is located in Denmark. This industrial park is special because companies reuse each other's waste (which then becomes by-products). For example, the Energy E2 Asnæs Power Station produces gypsum as a by-product of the electricity generation process; this gypsum becomes a resource for the BPB Gyproc A/S which produces plasterboards. This is one example of a system inspired by the biosphere-technosphere metaphor: in ecosystems, the waste from one organism is used as inputs to other organisms; in industrial systems, waste from a company is used as a resource by others.Apart from the direct benefit of incorporating waste into the loop, the use of an eco-industrial park can be a means of making renewable energy generating plants, like Solar PV, more economical and environmentally friendly. In essence, this assists the growth of the renewable energy industry and the environmental benefits that come with replacing fossil-fuels. Additional examples of industrial ecology include:

Substituting the fly ash byproduct of coal burning practices for cement in concrete production.Using second generation biofuels. An example of this is converting grease or cooking oil to biodiesels to fuel vehicles.[9] IE examines societal issues and their relationship with both technical systems and the environment. Through this holistic view , IE recognizes that solving problems must involve understanding the connections that exist between these systems, various aspects cannot be viewed in isolation. Often changes in one part of the overall system can propagate and cause changes in another part. Thus, you can only understand a problem if you look at its parts in relation to the whole. Based on this framework, IE looks at environmental issues with a systems thinking approach. A good IE example with these societal impacts can be found at the Blue Lagoon in Iceland. The Lagoon uses super-heated water from a local geothermal power plant to fill mineral-rich basins that have become recreational healing centers. In this sense the industrial process of energy production uses its wastewater to provide a crucial resource for the dependent recreational industry.

South Africa's National Cleaner Production Center was created in order to make the region's industries more efficient in terms of materials.

22. Pollution can occur as a result of natural causes - this is a natural pollution. For example, pollution of the biosphere as a result of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, catastrophic floods, forest fires. Pollution, which is caused by human activities, is anthropogenic pollution. Both natural and anthropogenic pollutants can be of different types.

1. Depending on the origin of pollutants, the following types of pollution are distinguished: - Physical pollution is pollution associated with changes in the physical parameters of the environment: thermal, light, electromagnetic, radiation, etc. For example, although the effect of electromagnetic pollution on humans has not been fully explored, there is reason to believe that the proximity of the high-voltage power line contributes to the development of cancer in humans; - Chemical pollution is a change in the natural chemical properties of the medium as a result of exceeding the average annual concentrations of any substances or as a result of the penetration of new chemicals into it. Chemical pollution is the most common and often the most dangerous for living organisms.

- Biological pollution is pollution due to introduction into the environment and reproduction in it of undesirable for human organisms. Biological pollution is divided into: a) biogenic, associated with the spread of undesirable for humans nutrients, for example, secretions, dead bodies, in areas or water areas where they have not previously been observed; B) microbial, manifested in the appearance in an environment of an unusually large number of microorganisms as a result of their mass reproduction, which harms humans and other organisms. For example, outbreaks of infectious diseases are the result of biological contamination of the environment;

- Information pollution is any information capable of removing ecosystems from a state of equilibrium, causing damage to nature and rational nature management.

2. Depending on how the pollutant enters the environment, the following are distinguished:

- Primary pollution caused by contamination from the environment;

- secondary pollution, formed during the physico-chemical interaction of primary pollutants. For example, a photochemical smog (smoke, fog) is a mixture of products of secondary air pollution arising from the decomposition of pollutants by the sun's rays.

3. In terms of distribution of pollution, distinguish:

- Global pollution, found anywhere in the biosphere;

- regional pollution occurs within a region;

- Local pollution takes place around an industrial enterprise, a city, intraquarter.

4. On the degree of stability of pollutants in the environment, distinguish:

- persistent pollution caused by a chemically stable pollutant that is not part of the natural cycle of substances and therefore very slowly decomposing. For example, xenobiotics (Greek xenos - alien, bios - life), which are foreign compounds synthesized by humans, such as polyethylene, synthetic detergents, many pesticides, etc .;

- unstable pollution caused by pollutants entering into the natural cycles of substances, so that they quickly disappear, subject to biological destruction.

5. For pollution facilities, i.e. On Wednesdays, in which they spread, they release pollution of space, atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil, rivers, seas, oceans, etc.

23. In November 1979, a "Declaration on Low-Waste Technology and Wasteless Technology and Waste Management" was adopted at a meeting on environmental protection within the United Nations (UN) in Geneva. In accordance with the Declaration under wasteless technology is understood such a principle of functioning of industry and agriculture of the region, industry, as well as individual industries, in which all components of raw materials and energy in a cycle are rationally used and ecological balance is not disturbed.

By low-waste means such production, the harmful effects of which do not exceed the level allowed by sanitary norms, but for technical, economic, organizational or other reasons, part of raw materials and materials goes into waste and sent to long-term storage. Of course, the concept of non-waste technology is to some extent conditional. By non-waste technology is understood the theoretical limit, the ideal model of production, which in most cases can not be realized in full, but only partially (hence the low-waste technology), but with the development of technical progress - with increasing approximation. Technological processes with minimal emissions, in which the ability of nature to self-purification can sufficiently prevent the occurrence of irreversible environmental changes, is sometimes called low-waste technologies. However, the name "wasteless technology" has become most widespread.The strategy of non-waste technology is based on the fact that unused wastes are simultaneously not fully used natural resources and a source of environmental pollution. Reducing the specific output of unused waste per product of the technology will allow producing more products from the same amount of raw materials and will, at the same time, be an effective measure for the protection of the environment.The biosphere gives us natural resources, from which final products are produced in the production sphere, while waste is generated. The products are used either in the production sphere or in the sphere of consumption, and waste is generated again. Waste refers to substances that do not have consumer value at first. In many cases, if necessary, after appropriate processing, they can be used as secondary raw materials (secondary material resources) or as secondary energy carriers (secondary energy resources). If, for technical or technological reasons, it is not possible or economically disadvantageous to process waste, then they must be introduced into the biosphere in such a way that, if possible, it does not harm the natural environment.

In the creation of wasteless technology, the following four principles were determined:

1. development and implementation of various drainless process flowsheets and water circulation cycles based on effective cleaning methods (for example, in galvanic production);

2. Development and implementation of fundamentally new technological processes that exclude the formation of any type of waste;

3. creation of territorial-industrial complexes, i.e. Economic regions in which a closed system of material flows of raw materials and wastes within the complex is realized;

4. widespread use of waste as secondary material and energy resources.

Analysis of the current situation, calculations and forecasts for the future convincingly show that the implementation of non-waste production in all industries is possible provided that the achievements of science and technology are used actively, and primarily chemical technology.

A feature of chemical technology is that it is able to turn into resources not only its own waste, but also the waste of other industries. In this regard, chemistry and chemical technology contribute to the solution of such fundamental problems of nature protection as the integrated use of raw materials and waste disposal, neutralization of industrial emissions.

24. Feasibility studies on systems of environmental monitoring of various branches and enterprises in our country were developed in pursuance of the resolution of the Government of the About creation of Uniform state system of environmental monitoring". The uniform state system of environmental monitoring of the Russian Federation (EGSEM) is a form of the organization of Public service of supervision over a state of environment according to Art. 69 of the Act of the Russian Federation "About protection of surrounding environment", accepted in 1991. The uniform state system of environmental monitoring is created as the system having own rules of procedure and management providing information support of management of an ecological situation in the territory of Russia and using the data necessary for this purpose obtained by departmental (branch) systems (services, networks) which are carrying out monitoring of separate objects. When carrying out the production environmental monitoring (PEM) are controlled:

during construction —

• emissions in the atmosphere of stationary and mobile sources of pollution,

• emissions of gas at tests of pipelines;

• dumpings of water at tests of pipelines;

• solid building and household waste;

• sewage industrial and selitebny (within SPZ) zones.

at operation —

• emissions at tests and retests,

• emissions at planned cleanings of an internal cavity,

• emissions at depressurization of shutoff valves and formation of fistulas,

• emissions of gas at crashes;

• dumpings of the sewer purified and crude economic household and industrial sewage;

- selitebny zones and settlements in the direction of primary winds at distance of influence of gas transmission object.

At implementation of PEM these statistical reportings are analyzed, compared to design materials on gross dumpings and emissions. The assessment of economic efficiency with the analysis of all payments for use of natural resources, and also payments and penalties for pollution is carried out.

At PEM enter the list of necessary actions:

• measurement,

• assessment of efficiency of works on restoration of environment,

• development of measures for weakening of negative impacts,

• maintaining documentation — magazines, reports, photographic materials, cards.

The structure of PEM is under construction according to accepted in Russia by three

EGSEM main levels: federal,

territoryal, local (object).

The PEM system consists of the following interconnected parts:

• networks of collection of information of objects (enterprises), including land (stationary) posts, передвиж¬ ny and stationary laboratories and space means;

• the centers of collecting and the preliminary analysis of information at the level of objects (TsSI);

• the centers of collecting and the analysis of information, planning of nature protection activity at the level of the enterprises (TsSPP);

• regional information and analysis centers (RIAC);

• branch information and analysis center (BIAC);

25. There is a classification of monitoring systems by objects, by factors, by sources and extent of impact.

The objects of observation are as follows: atmospheric, air, water, soil, climatic, monitoring of vegetation, wildlife, public health.

On the impact factors: monitoring of various chemical pollutants, natural and physical factors of influence (electromagnetic radiation, radioactive radiation, solar radiation, acoustic noise, noise vibration).

Classification of monitoring systems can be based on monitoring methods: monitoring by physico-chemical and biological indicators, remote monitoring.

Chemical monitoring is a system for monitoring the chemical composition of the atmosphere, sediments, surface and groundwater, the waters of the oceans and seas, soils, bottom sediments, vegetation, animals and controlling the dynamics of the spread of chemical pollutants. The global task of chemical monitoring is to determine the actual level of environmental contamination with priority highly toxic ingredients. These include: sulfur dioxide, suspended particles, radionuclides, organochlorine compounds, cadmium compounds, nitrates, nitrites, nitrogen oxides, mercury and its compounds, lead, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, fluoride compounds, asbestos, arsenic, microtoxins, microbiological pollution.

In recent years, remote monitoring has been widely used - monitoring with the use of aeronautical and space technology equipped with radiometric equipment capable of actively probing objects and recording data.

The scale of exposure is distinguished:

Global - tracking of global processes and phenomena in the Earth's biosphere, including all its environmental components, and warning of emerging extreme situations; Global monitoring is carried out by international organizations: Global Environmental Monitoring System (established in 1974); Global Atmosphere Watch Service; Global Climate Observing System; Global Ocean Observing System;

Basic (background) - tracking of general biospheric, mostly natural phenomena, without imposing on national and regional anthropogenic influences;

Transnational - monitoring of transboundary pollution;

National - monitoring on the scale of an individual state;

Regional - tracking of processes and phenomena within a region where these processes and phenomena can differ both in terms of both natural and anthropogenic impacts from the basic background characteristic of the entire biosphere; Regional monitoring in the Republic of Tatarstan, for example, was established on the basis of Resolution No. 321 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 07.07.1994. About the Unified Environmental Monitoring System of the Republic of Tajikistan; Regional monitoring is carried out by: Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Tatarstan, Department for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, Department of the Federal Real Estate Cadastre Agency for RT, Ministry of Health of the Republic of Tatarstan, Department for Technological and Environmental Supervision of the Federal Agency for Technological, Environmental and Nuclear Supervision On the protection, control and regulation of the use of hunting animals of the RT, the Inspection for the Protection and Reproduction of Fish Stocks and Regulation aniyu fishing at RT;

local - monitoring the impact of a particular human source;

IMPACT - monitoring regional and local anthropogenic impact in high-risk zones and locations.

26. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (French: Organization de coopération et de développement économiques, OCDE) is an intergovernmental economic organization with 35 member countries, founded in 1960 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. It is a forum of countries describing themselves as committed to democracy and the market economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seeking answers to common problems, identify good practices and coordinate domestic and international policies of its members. Most OECD members are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index (HDI) and are regarded as developed countries. OECD is an official United Nations Observer. In 1948, the OECD originated as the Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC),^[2] led by Robert Marjolin of France, to help administer the Marshall Plan (which was rejected by the Soviet Union and its satellite states). This would be achieved by allocating American financial aid and implementing economic programs for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II. (Similar reconstruction aid was sent to the war-torn Republic of China and post-war Korea, but not under the name "Marshall Plan".) In 1961, the OEEC was reformed into the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development by the Convention on the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and membership was extended to non-European states. The OECD's headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris, France. The OECD is funded by contributions from member states at varying rates. and had a total budget of EUR 363 million in 2015.

Aim. The OECD defines itself as a forum of countries committed to democracy and the market economy, providing a setting to compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practices, and co-ordinate domestic and international policies. Its mandate covers economic, environmental, and social issues. It acts by peer pressure to improve policy and implement "soft law"—non-binding instruments that can occasionally lead to binding treaties. In this work, the OECD cooperates with businesses, with trade unions and with other representatives of civil society. Collaboration at the OECD regarding taxation, for example, has fostered the growth of a global web of bilateral tax treaties.

The OECD promotes policies designed:

• to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in Member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy;

• to contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well as nonmember countries in the process of economic development; and

• to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, nondiscriminatory basis in accordance with international obligations.