1. Explain theoretical fundamentals of industrial ecology

Industrial ecology - studies the impact of the industry - from individual enterprises to technosphere – of the nature; the impact of environmental conditions on the operation of enterprises and their complexes.The main direction of industrial ecology is to create systems of production and utilization of industrial wastes, which have no effect on biosphere and environment.By now, there was an understanding that a person is doomed to extinction with the accumulation of the products of its creative activity. In connection with this, it sharply increases the value of industrial ecology.It should be noted that the environment will be the improved, the sooner people learn to recycle waste products, using them as raw materials for other industries. Therefore, industrial ecology is a panacea from humanity.Today, industrial ecology covers a very wide range of problems, where problems are very different and have absolutely no biological plan. It is appropriate to talk about engineering geological disciplines: ecology of mining industry, ecology of energy, ecology of chemical industries, etc. It might seem that the use of the word "ecology" in conjunction with these disciplines are not quite right. However, it is not. Such discipline - are very different in their specific content, but they are united on common methodology and a common goal: to maximum reduce impact of industrial activities on the process of circulation of substances in nature and environmental pollution. Modern Biosphere is a product of multiple processes that occur on Earth for 3.5-4.0 billion years. Surrounding us the atmosphere created by nature and remains unchanged during the last about 50 million years. But in recent decades talk about a large change in its composition, destruction ozone sublayer, changing transparency and consequently, the appearance of smog, increasing its pollution with sulfur and nitrogen oxides, lead, mercury, carcinogenic (such as benzo (a) pyrene) and other substances.

Emission of solid substances and the fallout from atmospheric sulfur and nitrogen compounds with acid rain lead to pollution of the hydrosphere and lithosphere. The anthropogenic impact on the biosphere is diverse and approach to the critical permissible level in recent years. Among them, especially negative impact on the atmosphere is provided by:

- Emission of diverse anthropogenic substances and other pollution;

- Emission of heat - influencing on heating of the atmosphere and the change of its radiation parameters, particularly surface layers in which there are people, animals, and plants.

Applied Ecology – complex interscience technical direction, to study the global impact of engineering and technology on the biosphere, the basis of environmental management and safety of human life. The cardinal solution of environmental problems is possible only when the harmonious relationship between society, technology and nature. Ecologically modern production, which is crucial to the problem of rational use and reproduction of natural resources, - the future of industrial complexes. A reasonable solution of ecological problems are possible only if the natural combination of scientific and technological progress with a multi-faceted social aspects of the protection of the biosphere (the ecosphere), which should form the basis of development and creation of existing and new industries and energy sources. Scientific and technical discipline about new technological processes, machines and devices, enabling the establishment of industrial production, which harmonize with the environment, with minimal negative impact on the ecosphere, called "industrial ecology".

Formulated provisions of the new scientific and technical direction - "industrial ecology" - only to a certain extent can highlight the diversity of this branch of science. Of course, they must be constantly supplemented, because industrial ecology is born at the junction of Sciences due to a pressing need.

2. Low-waste (waste-free) technology and closed cycles - one of the most radical to protect the environment from pollution. Next formulated four main areas of development (in accordance with the Declaration on Low- and non-waste technology and the use of waste, adopted in Geneva in 1979).

1. Creation of closed technological systems for different purposes on the basis of existing and future methods of purification and re-use of standard serial effluent. 2. Development and implementation of recycling industrial and household waste, which are considered at the same time as the secondary material resources (BMP). 3. Development of technological processes of production of traditional products principally new methods which achieved the highest possible transport of matter and energy in the finished product.

4. Design and creation of territorial-industrial complexes (TIC) with the fullest possible closed structure of material flows and waste production within them.

Waste-free technology - environmental strategy of industrial production, which includes a set of measures to ensure minimum loss of natural resources at the maximum economic efficiency.

The criterion of non-waste technology is a comprehensive utilization of raw materials and energy, in which the production process is not accompanied by environmental pollution. This man-made cycle of raw materials, products and wastes determines the closure of the production cycle, which in essence is the basis of non-waste technology. The principle of non-waste technology affects all parts of the production activity: the development of new technological recipes, equipment design, economic, environmental, events, etc. According to the official definition given at the International Seminar on low-waste technology in Tashkent in 1984, "non-waste technology - this way. of the production, in which the most rational and comprehensive use raw materials and energy in the cycle of raw materials - production - consumption - secondary resources, and so that any impact on the environment does not disturb its normal functioning. By the concept of non-waste technology, there are two approaches. One is based on the law of conservation of matter, according to which the raw material (matter) can always be converted to a particular product.

Consequently, it is possible to create such a process cycle in which all the environmentally hazardous substances are converted into a safe product or feedstock. According to another, completely non-waste technology cannot be created nor practically or theoretically (just as energy cannot be completely converted into useful work in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, and the raw material cannot be fully translated into a useful eco-friendly product). In other words, a completely non-waste technology - the ideal system to which everyone should aspire to real technological cycle, and the more it willapproach, the smaller will be environmentally dangerous trail. In this regard, the more real is the so-called low-waste technology - this way of production, where the harmful effects on the environment has been brought up to hygiene standards and the relevant maximum allowable concentrations (levels) MAC-ПДК (MAL -ПДУ). Sometimes, using the concept of "clean technology", meaning this method of production, in which raw materials and energy are used efficiently so that the amount released into the environment of pollutants and waste are minimized.

3. International cooperation in the field of environmental protection and nature is usually carried out under the scheme: international meetings - the conclusion of contracts - the creation of international governmental and non-governmental organizations - development and coordination of environmental safety programs. The solution to this complex task essentially possible only through concerted international cooperation. Significant efforts of the Russian Federation and foreign partners in this field in accordance with the United Nations Environment Programm made it possible to develop and adopt the following international documents: the Declaration of the Stockholm Conference on the Environment UNPO, Lima Declaration of Guidelines on Auditing, the World Conservation Strategy, the Charter of entrepreneurial activity in the interests of sustainable development, the international Convention on environmental impact assessment in the context of trans boarded, the declaration of the UN Conference on environment and sustainable development, etc., as well as the creation of international governmental and non-governmental organizations:

- United Nations Environment Programm, in 1972, with headquarters in Nairobi;

- UNESCO "Man and Biosphere" program since 1971, with headquarters in Paris;

- Lucerne Ministerial Declaration on the formation of organizational infrastructure, 1993;

- World Health Organization;

- World meteorological organization;

- International Union for Conservation of Nature, 1948, headquartered in Gland;

- Green Cross International, since 1993, with headquarters in The Hague, and others.

Besides the UN and UNESCO, the Council of Europe work in the field of environmental protection, the European Community, Economic Commission for Europe, the Community and other northern countries. Protection of the environment in modern conditions of development of industry, transport, public services and agriculture is one of the most important problems of ecological safety of our state. Improving the efficiency of state control in the field of environmental protection and nature involves strengthening state control bodies by eliminating duplication in the implementation of monitoring and enforcement functions and create a mechanism to protect the rights of citizens and organizations in the course of such activities.State control in the field of environmental protection and nature must have full authority to make independent and objective decisions on all matters related to the implementation of inspections or enforcement actions.Development of the system of state control in the field of environmental protection and nature should be directed to: - To create a model that would help governments to identify the key characteristics of an effective system of enforcement and promote compliance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan and would contribute to institutional reform of state control bodies in the field of environmental protection and nature in the long term;

- To promote cooperation and exchange of information between all actors involved in the enforcement of environmental legislation, including public authorities, industry, non-governmental organizations and the general public; - The mandatory implementation of production control as an important tool of environmental management systems;

- A clear definition of responsibilities at all levels of action for the implementation of environmental protection measures;

- Providing legal and social guarantees for officials responsible for control in the field of environment and nature.

4. In justifying the requirements parameters of the biosphere is necessary to know the assessment of various factors and the state of elements of the environment before and after the harmful effects. Here are important methods and organizational forms of environmental control (monitoring) in the country and on the ground. When considering methods should not forget that the state of the biosphere is influenced by both natural and man-made (anthropogenic) impacts. Control of natural environmental changes involved in geophysical services, changes under the influence of human activity - environmental monitoring services. In general, a complex system of monitoring mean observing, assessing and forecast environmental changes due to anthropogenic influences. Creating a generic methods to measure emissions in the atmosphere, and the local emission is metrological complex task. Depending on the application, the measuring apparatus is divided into three main groups:

1 - devices (weight, radioisotopic, optical, inductive, etc.). To control dust and ambient air outside the working area;

2 - devices (weight, optical, electric, laser and others) For measuring the dust content and the particulate composition in the aspiration (ventilating) emission;

3 - instruments (chromatography, mass spectrometry, spectroscopic, electrochemical) for the analysis of air and water environments. The most representative unified state system of environmental monitoring (USEMS) combining geophysical, biological and technological aspects. Organizational forms of environmental control: 1. State Ecological Expertise (SEE) is conducted in order to establish the correctness of the customer business and (or) other activities, possible environmental and related social and economic impacts of its implementation, as well as the completeness and adequacy of provided them of measures to prevent negative environmental impacts. Spend SEE expressly authorized by expert state bodies Ministry of Natural Resources of Kazakhstan. 2. Environmental audition - views on the quality of environmental management of the environment. In general, the environmental auditing can be defined as a voluntary internal self-test operations of some of the production structure in order to align these activities in accordance with the documents governing the use of natural resources, and thereby reducing the existing and potential environmental and financial damage due to non-compliance with these regulatory documents. The effectiveness of environmental auditing programs provide:

- An indispensable support for listening and evaluation of the results of the enterprise management;

- Independence of the function realized by listening activities;

- The professionalism of the audit team;

- Clearly defined objectives, the scope, resources and frequency of environmental auditing;

- The adequacy of the process of gathering, analyzing, interpreting and documenting the results of the objectives of listening;

- Availability of special procedures (algorithms) that provide an objective account of the results of listening in written reports;

- Measures to ensure the quality of environmental auditing. 3. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) - opinion on the economic impact of an object on the environment, drawn up in accordance with the approved rules. Since 1988, the requirement for an EIA has been extended to all fields of activity.

5. Although mandatory, which is different from the IEM of voluntary environmental management systems, this tool combines public and private interests. Its main objective - to provide in the shortest time possible to respond to the environmental problem arising in connection with faults in the process and, at the same time, to reduce public spending on compliance monitoring. These IEM may provide a basis for environmental monitoring and enforcement, as well as for the calculation of pollution charges and administrative fees. In addition, they help to optimize the national, regional and local system of environmental monitoring and establish priorities checks. For the subjects of control reliable data on the impact of their production on the environment is important from an economic point of view. For example, these data help to define more precisely and reduce costs associated with the use of natural resources and ensuring the protection of the environment (which in some areas reached 30% of operating costs), as well as to minimize the cost of the pollution or damage. Publication of data on specific companies and enterprises the ability to compare performance within the same industry sector or international benchmarks may create extra motivation to save money and improve environmental performance. Moreover, access to the data for other businesses increases the credibility of the industry of the state striving to create equal conditions of competition. The presence of publicly available data for each individual company to help citizens make decisions that affect not only their health, but also on the economic well-being, for example, where to buy the property. In Kazakhstan, the social importance of monitoring data IEM is growing due to the expansion of public access to environmental information, in particular in light of the prospects for the establishment of national Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) after ratification by 2003 Kiev Protocol to the Aarhus Convention.

Advantages of IEM may be manifested in full only if the results will be used by stakeholders in the decision-making process. Data collection for the data itself, likely to lead to the loss of value system.

6. In Kazakhstan, the implementation of industrial environmental monitoring (IEM), the largest industrial enterprises has a long history: although most programs IEM 3-5 years, some of the oldest enterprises reported on the establishment of such programs in the 1970s. The IEM organization has many positive elements, consistent with good international practice, but some of its shortcomings and weak linkages with the new social and economic conditions greatly reduce the potential benefits of IEM.

The obligation of the industrial enterprises (natural resources) to implement IEM clearly provided by the law "On Environmental Protection", which is a very positive feature of the regulatory framework in Kazakhstan. In addition, the Administrative and Criminal Codes contain provisions to minimize the opportunities for fraud and negligence in the implementation of the IEM program. Regulations are additional requirements for the methods and procedures of IEM. Large enterprises develop individual IEM program. Such multi-model control IEM provides enough opportunities in a timely manner to adapt to the new challenges of the transition process, and gradually develop and tighten the regulatory requirements, without compromising the objectives of socio-economic development.

Duties of control subjects and authorized bodies clearly itemized. Control subjects (in practice - the largest enterprises) responsible for the development of individual IEM integrated programs and submit them for approval by the competent authorities. The obligation to fulfill IEM applies regardless of ownership; IEM uniform requirements established for public and private enterprises.

Enterprises ( "nature users") are responsible for the implementation of the IEM programs and provide the necessary expertise, equipment and analytical tools. Sometimes the services are subcontractors. IEM results are reported competent authorities through regular statistical reporting, or immediately in case of emergency situations and accidents. IEM costs are paid now.

The quality of the organization and functioning of the Standing Committee is governed by the certification and certification laboratories, annual assessment IEM programs, audits, etc. Competent authorities are allowed to use IEM data for coercive action against the violators; this approach is used, in particular due to the limited material and financial resources at the disposal of competent authorities to monitor compliance with the requirements.

At the same time, increasing interest of industrial enterprises in the implementation of environmental management systems and automated information systems. It comes amid growing awareness of business leaders the importance of environmental issues to reduce the production costs and financial risks. However, the Ministry of Environmental Protection and its affiliated companies are taking new approaches in dealing with control subjects, involving dialogue and compromise.

Finally, NGOs and the public need access to environmental information for each individual enterprise. The reason for this is the ratification of the Aarhus Convention by Kazakhstan and the signing of the Kiev Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR).

7. In various kinds of scientific and practical activity of man to study the properties of objects and phenomena has long been the method of observation - the way of knowledge, based on a relatively long-term focused and perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. Outstanding samples of organizations observation for the natural environment are described in the first century AD in the "Natural History" Second Guy Pliny (the Elder). Thirty-seven volumes containing information on astronomy, physics, geography, zoology, botany, agriculture, medicine, history, served as the most comprehensive encyclopedia of knowledge to the Middle Ages. According to the now classic definition, environmental monitoring - information system of observations, evaluation and forecast changes in the environment, created to highlight the anthropogenic component of these changes on the background of natural processes.

Environmental monitoring system should collect, systematize and analyze information about:

- State of the environment and its changes;

- The reasons for the observed and possible changes in the state (ie the sources and factors of influence);

- The permissibility of loads on the environment as a whole and its individual components;

- On existing biosphere reserves.

Environmental monitoring in the Russian Federation as a comprehensive observation of the state of the system environment, assessment and prediction of environmental change under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

According to the definitions and functions assigned to the system monitoring has three main areas of activity (Figure 1.)

- observation of the impact factors and the state of the environment;

- Evaluation of the actual state of the environment;

- Forecast the state of the environment and assess the projected state.

It will be appreciated that the monitoring system itself does not include the activities of sources of impact management, but is a source of needed to make environmentally significant information solutions.

The concept of environmental control is also defined:

Control in the field of environment (environmental control) - a system of measures aimed at the prevention, detection and suppression of violations of environmental legislation, enforcement of the subjects of economic and other activity requirements, including standards and regulations in the field of environment environment.

The main tasks of environmental monitoring:

1. Control in the field of environment (environmental control) is carried out in order to ensure public authorities, bodies of state power of subjects, local authorities, legal entities and in the field of environmental protection legislation by individuals runtime compliance, including standards and regulations documents in the field of environmental protection and environmental safety.

2. Implemented government, industrial, municipal and public control in the field of environmental protection.

Thus, according to the environmental legislation, environmental monitoring is an environmental regulation tool to create an information base necessary to perform the tasks of environmental management and control.

8. Today the observation network of the sources of exposure and the condition of the biosphere spans the globe. The global of environmental monitoring system (GEMS) was created by joint efforts of the world community. The main provisions and objectives of the programme the GEMS were formulated in 1974 at the first intergovernmental meeting on monitoring. Priority was recognized as the organization of monitoring of environmental pollution, and causing its influence factors.

The monitoring system is implemented at several levels, which correspond to specifically designed programs:

‒ impact (study of environmental impacts at the local scale-I);

‒ regional (a manifestation of the migration and transformation of contaminants, combined effects of different factors specific to the economy of the region and transboundary transport - R);

Начало формы

Конец формы

‒ background (based on biosphere reserves, where any economic activities are prohibited - B).

* Extremely important a natural component of the stratosphere - the ozone acts as a pollutant (strong oxidant involved in the formation of photochemical smog) in the troposphere (the lower atmosphere). Program impact monitoring can be directed, for example, to study the characteristics of the release into the environment and scattering in it of pollutants contained in the exhaust gas or wastewater of a particular company. Subject to regional monitoring, as follows from the name itself, is the environment within that particular region. Finally, the background monitoring carried out in the framework of the international program "Man and biosphere", is intended to capture the background environment, which is necessary for further estimates of the levels of anthropogenic impact. Program observations are formed according to the principle of priority (subject to priority determination) of pollutants and integrated (reflecting the group of phenomena, processes or substances) characteristics.

Classes of priority pollutants, established an expert way and taken in the GEMS, is shown in table 1. The definition of priorities in the organization of monitoring systems depends on the purpose and objectives of specific programs: for example, in regional monitoring priority is given to urban water bodies - the sources of drinking water and spawning grounds of fish, so in relation to the media of observations in the first place, examine the air and water of freshwater reservoirs.

9. The Stockholm United Nations Conference on the Environment was invited to organize the Earth Service, which is currently part of the environmental program (UNEP). Within the framework of the Earth Service, a global environmental monitoring system (GEMS) was established, the main objectives of which are: 1)Organization of an extended system of warnings about the threat to human health; 2)Assessment of global atmospheric pollution and its impact on climate; 3)Assessment of the amount and distribution of contaminants in biological systems, especially in food chains; 4)Assessment of critical problems arising from agricultural activities and land use; 5)Assessment of the response of terrestrial ecosystems to the effects of the environment; 6)Assessment of ocean pollution and the impact of pollution on marine ecosystems; 7)The creation of an improved system of warning of natural disasters on an international scale.

To ensure that the organized GEMS system does not duplicate existing systems in its work, the following important principles were adopted at the meeting:

1.Intergovernmental cooperation on monitoring should be based on existing national and international systems.

2.Special UN agencies should be used as the initial basis for coordinating and implementing the monitoring program.

3.Priority should be given to global and international monitoring.

4.The monitoring system should be designed to meet clearly formulated requirements, and data assessment activities should be a common part of the design of such a system.

Separate subsystems in GEMS are allocated pollution monitoring and monitoring of renewable resources, including some additional environmental problems.

The ultimate goals of pollution monitoring are:

1)Determination of concentration levels of critical pollutants in a particular environment, their distribution in a particular environment, their distribution in space, and changes in time;

2)Determination of the magnitude and flow rates of pollutants and harmful products of their transformations;

3)Making comparisons of sampling and analysis methods between countries, including developing countries, in order to obtain comparable results and exchange of experience in the organization of monitoring systems; 4)

Providing global and regional information for decision-making on pollution control.

Over the past years, a significant amount of research has been carried out to monitor changes in the state of the natural environment. Some of them were implemented within the framework of GEMS, some within the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) with the support of UNEP.