- •Introduction
- •Verreaux’s sifaka
- •Identification: Males reach 8–10 feet in length and have a massive neck, shoulders, and mane; females are smaller.
- •Identification: a large deer (standing 4-5 feet at the shoulder) with brownish red fur and a pale rump patch; males generally have enormous antlers and a long mane.
- •Identification: a 3-4-foot-tall deer with a brownish coat and large antlers (3 feet long) in males.
- •Identification: a medium-sized deer typically with a grayish brown coat and white underparts, and antlers in both sexes. Moose
- •Identification : The largest species of deer (weighing up to 1,300 pounds); has slender legs, a pendulous nose, and (in males) prominent palmate antlers and a dewlap or “bell” beneath the throat.
- •Identification: The tallest mammal (up to 19 feet), with a sloping back, enormously long neck, bony, knobbed “horns” in both sexes, and the familiar reddish brown spotted patterning.
- •Identification: a deer-sized mammal with distinctive, sharply forked horns in males and reddish brown fur with white patches.
- •Identification: a medium-sized gazelle; males have distinctive spiral horns and a black-and-white coat; females and juvenile males are tan colored.
- •Identification: a large wild sheep (weighing up to 300 pounds) with massive spiral horns in males; coat is brown with a white muzzle, underparts, and rump patch.
- •Identification: Similar to Bighorn, except smaller and with thinner horns; coat is all white or brownish black to gray,
- •Identification: a large (6—8—foot—long) mammal with long, shaggy fur, humped shoulders, and massive, down-sweeping horns.
- •Identification: a stocky, 3-foot-tall, goatlike mammal with shaggy white fur and sharp horns in both sexes.
- •Identification: An enormous buffalo (up to 61/2 feet high) with massive forequarters, humped shoulders, and (in males) a beard.
- •Identification: Similar to American Bison but more slender, less hunched, and with longer legs.
- •Identification: a huge (II-foot-long), usually black buffalo with massive, upward-curving horns in both sexes.
- •Identification: The familiar wild horse with a black-and-white-striped pattern; Mountain Zebras usually have a distinctive dewlap.
- •Identification: a 3—5-foot-long wild pig with a large head, prominent tusks, and distinctive warts in front of the eyes and on the jaw..
- •Identification: a piglike mammal with grayish, speckled, or salt-and-pepper fur and a light-colored collar.
- •Identification: The familiar large (up to 71/2 tons), trunked mammal with enormous ears and tusks in both sexes.
- •Identification: a large wild cat (up to 550 pounds) with a prominent mane in males.
- •Identification: a small canid (body length up to 3 feet) with a bushy tail and a reddish brown coat (although some variants are silvery or black).
- •Identification: The largest wild canid (reaching up to 7 feet in length) with a gray, brown, black, or white coat.
- •Identification: a small (3 foot long), reddish brown, bearlike canid with short legs and tail. Social Organization
- •Identification: a huge bear (7–10 feet tall) with dark brown, golden, cream, or black fur..
- •Identification: a smaller bear (4–6 feet) with coat color ranging from black to gray, brown, and even white. Park, Saskatchewan, Canada; subspecies u.A. Altifrontalis.
- •Identification: a yellowish brown hyena with spotted flanks and back, a strongly sloping body profile, and rounded ears; females typically heavier than males.
- •Identification: a large (over 3 foot tall) kangaroo with a gray coat and a hair-covered muzzle.
- •Identification: a smaller kangaroo (21/2 feet tall) with a reddish brown wash on its neck.
- •Identification: a light gray kangaroo standing up to 3 feet tall, with a white facial stripe and a long, slender tail.
- •Identification: a small (6–7 pound), rodentlike kangaroo with reddish brown fur.
- •Identification: Stocky, tree-dwelling kangaroos; chestnut or chocolate brown fur with lighter patches.
- •Identification: a small, mouselike marsupial with a thick, conical, fat-storing tail.
- •Identification: a catlike marsupial, up to 2 feet long, with grayish brown fur and white splotches.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (10—15 inch), primarily tree-dwelling squirrel with a reddish brown or tawny coat and white underparts, often with a dark stripe on the side.
- •Identification: a large (20 inch), tree-dwelling squirrel with a long, bushy tail and gray, grizzled, or buff fur.
- •Identification: Small, guinea-pig-like rodents with coarse fur; Dwarf Cavies have a distinctive white eye-ring, Cuis have yellow-colored incisors.
- •Identification: a small (less than I foot long) insectivore with sandy-colored spines, white underparts, and prominent ears.
- •Identification: a dark gray goose with fine silvery-white feather patterning; the wild ancestor of domestic geese.
- •Identification: a brown-plumaged goose with a distinctive black neck and white cheek patch; varies widely in size, from 2–24 pounds.
- •Identification: a pinkish-red-billed goose with two major color phases: all-white and “blue” (grayish plumage with a white head and neck).
- •Identification: The only swan with fully black plumage; wing feathers are white, bill is bright red, and the neck is especially long.
- •Identification: a large swan (up to 33 pounds) with a black knob at the base of its reddish orange bill (less prominent in females).
- •Identification: a familiar duck with a blue wing patch, an iridescent green head and white collar in males, and brown, mottled plumage in females.
- •Identification: a grayish brown duck with a light blue upper-wing patch, tawny spotted underparts, and white, crescent-shaped facial stripes in males.
- •Identification: a broad-billed duck with a purplish black head and breast and white underparts in males, and a dark head and brownish plumage in females.
- •Identification: Cinnamon breast, dark green head and back, and white collar; adult females have white eye and bill rings.
- •Identification: a large, grayish duck with a prominent lobe hanging from the lower bill, and a spike-fan tail..
- •Identification: a gull-sized, web-footed bird with contrasting black upperparts and white underparts; some individuals have a white eye ring.
- •Identification: a large, white-plumaged, gull-like bird with an enorous wingspan (over 61/2 feet), a dark back, and a grayish black wash on the face.
- •Identification: a large (3 foot), black, web-footed bird with a white throat and white filamentary plumes on the nape.
- •Identification: Similar to Great Cormorant, but smaller and uniformly black, with a prominent forehead crest.
- •Identification: a ducklike bird with grayish white plumage, bright red eyes, and yellow facial tufts.
- •Identification: Similar to Silvery Grebe, but with a buff or chestnut wash on the breast, white streaks on the head, and black-and-white eyes.
- •Identification: a stocky, medium-sized (2 foot long) heron with a black crown and back, white underparts, gray wings, and white ribbon plumes at the nape of the neck.
- •Identification: Long-legged, typically white herons with ornamental, filamentous plumes on the back, breast, and nape; these are golden-buff-colored in the Cattle Egret.
- •Identification: Similar to Little Egret but with slaty-gray plumage and a reddish brown head and neck.
- •Identification: a large (3 foot long) heron with a gray back, white head and neck, and black “eyebrow” stripe and nape plumes.
- •Identification: a large (nearly 20 inch) wading bird with bluish purple plumage, a red shield on its forehead, and red feet with long toes.
- •Identification: Similar to Pukeko, but flightless, and with grayish brown plumage, no red frontal shield, and shorter legs.
- •Identification: Similar to Pukeko, but with black plumage and shorter legs.
- •Identification: The largest flamingo species (4—5 feet tall) with plumage ranging from pale whitish pink to bright orange-pink.
- •Identification: a large (12 inch) sandpiper with gray or brownish plumage and, in some males, spectacular ruffs and feather tufts on the head that vary widely in color and pattern (see below).
- •Identification: a medium-sized (7—8 inch) wading bird with a small head and short beak, buff-colored face and underparts, and regular dark brown patterning on the back and crown.
- •Identification: a large (13—14 inch) sandpiper with streaked and spotted, dark brownish gray plumage; long and slightly upturned bill; greenish yellow legs.
- •Identification: Slightly smaller than the Greenshank; plumage grayish brown, with black and dark brown streaks and spots; orange-red legs.
- •Identification: a fairly large (12—15 inch) sandpiper-like bird with long pink legs, white plumage with black wings and back, and a slender black bill.
- •Identification: Similar to Black-winged Stilt but with entirely black plumage.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (10 inch) sandpiper-like bird with mottled buff and black plumage; adult males have a black face and underparts bordered with white.
- •Identification: a large gull (up to 27 inches) with a dark gray back and wings; spotted black-and-white wing tips; pink legs; and a yellow bill with a red spot.
- •Identification: a smaller gull (to 17 inches) with a blue-gray mantle; more pointed black wing tips; relatively short black legs and dark eyes; and a yellowish green bill.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (16 inch) gull with gray back and wings; spotted black-and-white wing tips; bright red bill and legs; white iris.
- •Identification: Similar to Silver Gull except larger (2 feet long), legs pinkish, bill yellow with a red spot, and iris yellow.
- •Identification: a medium-sized gull (to 17 inches) with a distinctive black or chocolate brown “hood,” red legs, and a gray back and wings.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (to 18 inches) black-headed gull with white eye-crescents, a dark gray back, and red legs and bill..
- •Ivory gull
- •Identification: An all-white gull with black legs and a blue-gray bill.
- •Identification: a large (to 22 inches) gull-like bird with a black cap and crest, light gray back and wings, forked tail, and long red bill with a black tip.
- •Identification: Similar to Caspian Tern but smaller (to 17 inches) and with a more deeply forked tail and slighter bill.
- •IdentifIfAtion: a crow-sized bird with cinnamon-brown plumage and a bare, blue-gray face..
- •Identification: Adult males are black with a red crown and a light blue patch on the back; yearling males and females are all green, while younger adult males are green with a reddish crown..
- •Identification: Small (5–7 inch) birds with brown and rufous plumage and a bluish gray patch around the eyes; Ocellateds have a distinctive scalloped pattern on the back feathers.
- •Identification: a small (5 inch), plain olive-green bird with a long tail and an ocher- or tawny-colored lower breast.
- •Identification: a small to medium-sized swallow with iridescent blue-green upperparts, white underparts, and a tail that is only slightly forked.
- •Identification: a bluish brown swallow with pale underparts, buff forehead, and a chestnut throat; tail is not forked..
- •Identification: a small, sparrow-sized swallow with a slightly forked tail, brown plumage, white underparts, and a brown breast band.
- •Identification: a small songbird with bright yellow underparts, olive green upperparts, and a black crown (“hood”) and throat in adult males and some females (see below).
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with olive-brown plumage, distinctive white shoulder bars, and (in males) blue-gray crown.
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with olive to orange-red plumage and a distinctive crossed bill..
- •Identification: a small (61/2 inch) bird with a thick, hooked bill, grayish brown plumage, and a darker facial mask (black in males)..
- •Identification: a tiny (41/2 inch) chickadee-like bird with a bright blue crown, black-and-white face, bluish green plumage, and yellow underparts.
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with bright blue plumage, white underparts, and a chestnut throat and breast.
- •Identification: a grayish buff, sparrow-sized bird with a pale gray-white crown..
- •Identification: a drab, sparrowlike bird with brownish gray plumage and a black throat patch..
- •Identification: The familiar black-bibbed sparrow; Cowbird is iridescent black with a dark brown head..
- •Identification: Light gray plumage, black wings and tail, and (in some birds) bare yellow head and fleshy black wattles.
- •Identification: a small crow with black plumage and gray on the back of the head.
- •Identification: a large (2 foot), all-black bird similar to a crow but much bulkier..
- •Victoria’s riflebird
- •Identification: Adult males are black with an iridescent sheen and metallic crown, throat, and central tail feathers; females and younger males are drabber, with brown, buff, and off-white plumage.
- •Identification: a thrush-sized bird (12 inches) with velvety black plumage and brilliant golden yellow crown, nape, upper back, and wing feathers.
- •Identification: a pheasant-sized bird with brownish gray plumage, powerful legs and claws, and long, ornate tail feathers.
- •Identification: The largest living bird (over 6 feet tall), with striking black-and-white plumage in the male and powerful legs and claws.
- •Identification: The second-largest living bird (5—6 feet tall), with shaggy, brown plumage and bare patches of blue skin on the face and neck.
- •Identification: Similar to Ostrich but smaller (up to 41/2 feet tall) and with overall grayish brown plumage in both sexes.
- •Identification: a small penguin (approximately 2 feet tall) with a black band on its chest and patches of red skin at the base of its bill..
- •Identification: a large (3 foot tall) penguin with orange ear patches and a yellow-orange wash on the breast.
- •Identification: a medium-sized penguin (up to 21/2 feet) with a white patch above the eye.
- •Identification: a large vulture (wingspan up to 9 feet) with a white head and neck and brown plumage.
- •Insects
- •Introduction
Identification: a small (6–7 pound), rodentlike kangaroo with reddish brown fur.
DORIA’S, MATSCHIE’S TREE KANGAROOS
Identification: Stocky, tree-dwelling kangaroos; chestnut or chocolate brown fur with lighter patches.
Social Organization
Tree Kangaroos and Rufous Bettongs are largely solitary, although they sometimes associate in pairs, trios, or small groups of adults and young. About 15 percent of Bettong groups are same-sex. The mating systems of these species, though poorly understood, may involve polygamy or promiscuity, perhaps combined with monogamous pair-bonding in some populations of Rufous Bettongs. Males do not generally participate in raising their own offspring.
Description
Behavioral Expression: Female Rufous Bettongs sometimes court and mount other females, using behavior patterns also found in opposite-sex contexts. A homosexual interaction begins with one female approaching another and then sniffing and nuzzling her genital and pouch openings as well as her anus. The courting female becomes sexually aroused and exhibits a sinuous TAIL-LASHING, in which she moves her tail rapidly from side to side. The other female may initially react with hostility (as do females in heterosexual courtships), lying on her side and kicking with her hind feet while softly growling. As a result, the courting female might perform FOOT-DRUMMING, in which she stands upright on her hind legs near the other female and stamps one foot on the ground in front of her. If the other female calms down, the courting female may mount her by clasping her waist from behind and thrusting against her. Some homosexual interactions in Rufous Bettongs involve adult females courting and mounting juvenile females and vice versa. Sometimes males in the vicinity try to intervene or disrupt females engaging in homosexual behavior, but in other cases they simply ignore the activity. Mountings between females, including pelvic thrusting, also occur in Doria’s and Matschie’s Tree Kangaroos.
Frequency: Homosexual interactions occur fairly frequently in captive Rufous Bettongs: in one study, 3 out of 8 mounts were between females, and homosexual activity was observed a total of 19 times over one month. In Tree Kangaroos same-sex mounting occurs only occasionally.
Orientation: Female Rufous Bettongs that participate in homosexual behavior are probably bisexual, since most mate with males and become successful mothers. Most female Tree Kangaroos that mount other females probably also participate in heterosexual activity, although at least one Matschie’s Tree Kangaroo that participated in same-sex mounts was a nonbreeder.
Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities
Heterosexual interactions in Rufous Bettongs have a number of nonprocreative aspects. For example, adult males generally make more sexual approaches to juvenile females than to sexually mature adult females. Nonreproductive REVERSE mounts—in which females mount males—occasionally occur in this species, as do attempted mounts by males on females who are not in heat. In the latter case, the female typically responds aggressively, vigorously kicking and growling at him. Although most heterosexual interactions occur between pairs of animals, sometimes two female Rufous Bettongs consort simultaneously with the same male as part of a trio. Among Matschie’s Tree Kangaroos, a form of infanticide known as POUCH-ROBBING has occasionally been observed in captivity, in which females are severely aggressive toward other infants and may actually pull joeys from their mother’s pouch and kill them.
Other Species
Female Tasmanian Rat Kangaroos (Bettongia gaimardi) also engage in homosexual mounting.
IDENTIFICATION: A bearlike marsupial with woolly brown or gray fur, large black nose, white chest, and long claws. DISTRIBUTION: Eastern and southeastern Australia. HABITAT: Eucalyptus forests. STUDY AREAS: Lone Pine Sanctuary, Brisbane, Australia; San Diego Zoo; subspecies P.c. adustus.
Social Organization
Koalas are largely nocturnal and solitary, although in some populations they tend to live in scattered clusters of two to six females with several males. The mating system is probably promiscuous or polygamous (animals mate with multiple partners), and males take no part in raising their young.
Description
Behavioral Expression: Female Koalas in heat sometimes mount each other in the trees: while one female clings vertically to the trunk, another climbs behind her and reaches around to simultaneously hold on to the tree. She begins to make pelvic thrusts against the other female, while also typically gripping the other female’s neck in her teeth (as does the male during heterosexual mounting). Occasionally one female mounts another from the side (a position sometimes also used by younger males). Usually the mounted female does not display the receptive posture (which involves arching her back while throwing her head back), and homosexual mounts are generally briefer than heterosexual ones. Like male-female copulations, homosexual interactions sometimes involve aggression between the participants: one female may attack the other or pin her to the ground following a mounting. Sometimes two females take turns mounting each other, and homosexual mounting is often interspersed with other signs of intense sexual arousal, including chasing, bellowing, and jerking. BELLOWING is an extraordinary call (also made by males) that has been described as a combination of rasping, growling, wheezing, grunting, rumbling, and braying. It consists of a long series of in-drawn, snorelike breaths alternating with exhalated, belchlike sounds. JERKING is a display resembling the hiccups, in which the female simultaneously jerks her body upward and flicks her head backward repeatedly. Male Koalas also sometimes mount each other, and a few even perform the jerking display like females in heat.
A female Koala mounting another female
Frequency: In captivity, same-sex mounting accounts for 11 percent of all copulatory activity, with the majority of this being mounts between females.
Orientation: Koalas that participate in homosexual mounting are probably bisexual, since females that mount other females have also been observed mating with males.
Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities
Heterosexual relations in Koalas are marked by a striking amount of aggression and violence: more than two-thirds of fights are between males and females rather than between males. Females are sometimes “pestered” by males that persistently follow, touch, bite, or snap at them; if the female returns the bites, the encounter can escalate into a severe fight. Males have been known to brutally attack females—including pregnant and nursing mothers—knocking them from the trees and savagely mauling them. In fact, it is typical for males to nip females on the neck during mating, and for heterosexual copulations to end with the male attacking the female. Females also fight with males (though less violently), and aggressiveness toward males is considered to be a defining feature of estrus for female Koalas. Occasionally adults are also abusive toward babies: mothers sometimes bite their young, while males have been observed attacking infants that interrupt them during a mating with their mother. Many heterosexual interactions are nonprocreative, since males often try to mount females who are not in heat. Although the females typically rebuff their advances, in some cases the males are able to mount them, often thrusting against the female and ejaculating on her without any penetration. Females in heat also sometimes mount males (REVERSE mounts).
Many wild populations of Koalas have particularly high rates of female infertility (and significantly reduced reproductive rates) due to venereal disease. More than half of all females in some areas are infected with genital chlamydia, a bacteria that causes a number of reproductive tract diseases and, ultimately, sterility. This pathogen has apparently been present in Koala populations for a relatively long time, as records of the associated diseases date back to at least the 1890s. Although the exact mode of its transmission is not yet fully understood, two routes have been implicated: sexual and mother-to-young. The latter may be due to the infant Koala’s habit of eating its mother’s feces directly from her anus during weaning, since she produces a special form of excrement known as PAP especially for feeding her young (this practice is also found in a number of other marsupials).
Other Species
In another marsupial, the Common Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), intersexuality or hermaphroditism occasionally occurs: one individual, for example, had male body proportions, coloring, and genitals combined with mammary glands and a pouch.
FAT-TAILED DUNNART