- •Introduction
- •Verreaux’s sifaka
- •Identification: Males reach 8–10 feet in length and have a massive neck, shoulders, and mane; females are smaller.
- •Identification: a large deer (standing 4-5 feet at the shoulder) with brownish red fur and a pale rump patch; males generally have enormous antlers and a long mane.
- •Identification: a 3-4-foot-tall deer with a brownish coat and large antlers (3 feet long) in males.
- •Identification: a medium-sized deer typically with a grayish brown coat and white underparts, and antlers in both sexes. Moose
- •Identification : The largest species of deer (weighing up to 1,300 pounds); has slender legs, a pendulous nose, and (in males) prominent palmate antlers and a dewlap or “bell” beneath the throat.
- •Identification: The tallest mammal (up to 19 feet), with a sloping back, enormously long neck, bony, knobbed “horns” in both sexes, and the familiar reddish brown spotted patterning.
- •Identification: a deer-sized mammal with distinctive, sharply forked horns in males and reddish brown fur with white patches.
- •Identification: a medium-sized gazelle; males have distinctive spiral horns and a black-and-white coat; females and juvenile males are tan colored.
- •Identification: a large wild sheep (weighing up to 300 pounds) with massive spiral horns in males; coat is brown with a white muzzle, underparts, and rump patch.
- •Identification: Similar to Bighorn, except smaller and with thinner horns; coat is all white or brownish black to gray,
- •Identification: a large (6—8—foot—long) mammal with long, shaggy fur, humped shoulders, and massive, down-sweeping horns.
- •Identification: a stocky, 3-foot-tall, goatlike mammal with shaggy white fur and sharp horns in both sexes.
- •Identification: An enormous buffalo (up to 61/2 feet high) with massive forequarters, humped shoulders, and (in males) a beard.
- •Identification: Similar to American Bison but more slender, less hunched, and with longer legs.
- •Identification: a huge (II-foot-long), usually black buffalo with massive, upward-curving horns in both sexes.
- •Identification: The familiar wild horse with a black-and-white-striped pattern; Mountain Zebras usually have a distinctive dewlap.
- •Identification: a 3—5-foot-long wild pig with a large head, prominent tusks, and distinctive warts in front of the eyes and on the jaw..
- •Identification: a piglike mammal with grayish, speckled, or salt-and-pepper fur and a light-colored collar.
- •Identification: The familiar large (up to 71/2 tons), trunked mammal with enormous ears and tusks in both sexes.
- •Identification: a large wild cat (up to 550 pounds) with a prominent mane in males.
- •Identification: a small canid (body length up to 3 feet) with a bushy tail and a reddish brown coat (although some variants are silvery or black).
- •Identification: The largest wild canid (reaching up to 7 feet in length) with a gray, brown, black, or white coat.
- •Identification: a small (3 foot long), reddish brown, bearlike canid with short legs and tail. Social Organization
- •Identification: a huge bear (7–10 feet tall) with dark brown, golden, cream, or black fur..
- •Identification: a smaller bear (4–6 feet) with coat color ranging from black to gray, brown, and even white. Park, Saskatchewan, Canada; subspecies u.A. Altifrontalis.
- •Identification: a yellowish brown hyena with spotted flanks and back, a strongly sloping body profile, and rounded ears; females typically heavier than males.
- •Identification: a large (over 3 foot tall) kangaroo with a gray coat and a hair-covered muzzle.
- •Identification: a smaller kangaroo (21/2 feet tall) with a reddish brown wash on its neck.
- •Identification: a light gray kangaroo standing up to 3 feet tall, with a white facial stripe and a long, slender tail.
- •Identification: a small (6–7 pound), rodentlike kangaroo with reddish brown fur.
- •Identification: Stocky, tree-dwelling kangaroos; chestnut or chocolate brown fur with lighter patches.
- •Identification: a small, mouselike marsupial with a thick, conical, fat-storing tail.
- •Identification: a catlike marsupial, up to 2 feet long, with grayish brown fur and white splotches.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (10—15 inch), primarily tree-dwelling squirrel with a reddish brown or tawny coat and white underparts, often with a dark stripe on the side.
- •Identification: a large (20 inch), tree-dwelling squirrel with a long, bushy tail and gray, grizzled, or buff fur.
- •Identification: Small, guinea-pig-like rodents with coarse fur; Dwarf Cavies have a distinctive white eye-ring, Cuis have yellow-colored incisors.
- •Identification: a small (less than I foot long) insectivore with sandy-colored spines, white underparts, and prominent ears.
- •Identification: a dark gray goose with fine silvery-white feather patterning; the wild ancestor of domestic geese.
- •Identification: a brown-plumaged goose with a distinctive black neck and white cheek patch; varies widely in size, from 2–24 pounds.
- •Identification: a pinkish-red-billed goose with two major color phases: all-white and “blue” (grayish plumage with a white head and neck).
- •Identification: The only swan with fully black plumage; wing feathers are white, bill is bright red, and the neck is especially long.
- •Identification: a large swan (up to 33 pounds) with a black knob at the base of its reddish orange bill (less prominent in females).
- •Identification: a familiar duck with a blue wing patch, an iridescent green head and white collar in males, and brown, mottled plumage in females.
- •Identification: a grayish brown duck with a light blue upper-wing patch, tawny spotted underparts, and white, crescent-shaped facial stripes in males.
- •Identification: a broad-billed duck with a purplish black head and breast and white underparts in males, and a dark head and brownish plumage in females.
- •Identification: Cinnamon breast, dark green head and back, and white collar; adult females have white eye and bill rings.
- •Identification: a large, grayish duck with a prominent lobe hanging from the lower bill, and a spike-fan tail..
- •Identification: a gull-sized, web-footed bird with contrasting black upperparts and white underparts; some individuals have a white eye ring.
- •Identification: a large, white-plumaged, gull-like bird with an enorous wingspan (over 61/2 feet), a dark back, and a grayish black wash on the face.
- •Identification: a large (3 foot), black, web-footed bird with a white throat and white filamentary plumes on the nape.
- •Identification: Similar to Great Cormorant, but smaller and uniformly black, with a prominent forehead crest.
- •Identification: a ducklike bird with grayish white plumage, bright red eyes, and yellow facial tufts.
- •Identification: Similar to Silvery Grebe, but with a buff or chestnut wash on the breast, white streaks on the head, and black-and-white eyes.
- •Identification: a stocky, medium-sized (2 foot long) heron with a black crown and back, white underparts, gray wings, and white ribbon plumes at the nape of the neck.
- •Identification: Long-legged, typically white herons with ornamental, filamentous plumes on the back, breast, and nape; these are golden-buff-colored in the Cattle Egret.
- •Identification: Similar to Little Egret but with slaty-gray plumage and a reddish brown head and neck.
- •Identification: a large (3 foot long) heron with a gray back, white head and neck, and black “eyebrow” stripe and nape plumes.
- •Identification: a large (nearly 20 inch) wading bird with bluish purple plumage, a red shield on its forehead, and red feet with long toes.
- •Identification: Similar to Pukeko, but flightless, and with grayish brown plumage, no red frontal shield, and shorter legs.
- •Identification: Similar to Pukeko, but with black plumage and shorter legs.
- •Identification: The largest flamingo species (4—5 feet tall) with plumage ranging from pale whitish pink to bright orange-pink.
- •Identification: a large (12 inch) sandpiper with gray or brownish plumage and, in some males, spectacular ruffs and feather tufts on the head that vary widely in color and pattern (see below).
- •Identification: a medium-sized (7—8 inch) wading bird with a small head and short beak, buff-colored face and underparts, and regular dark brown patterning on the back and crown.
- •Identification: a large (13—14 inch) sandpiper with streaked and spotted, dark brownish gray plumage; long and slightly upturned bill; greenish yellow legs.
- •Identification: Slightly smaller than the Greenshank; plumage grayish brown, with black and dark brown streaks and spots; orange-red legs.
- •Identification: a fairly large (12—15 inch) sandpiper-like bird with long pink legs, white plumage with black wings and back, and a slender black bill.
- •Identification: Similar to Black-winged Stilt but with entirely black plumage.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (10 inch) sandpiper-like bird with mottled buff and black plumage; adult males have a black face and underparts bordered with white.
- •Identification: a large gull (up to 27 inches) with a dark gray back and wings; spotted black-and-white wing tips; pink legs; and a yellow bill with a red spot.
- •Identification: a smaller gull (to 17 inches) with a blue-gray mantle; more pointed black wing tips; relatively short black legs and dark eyes; and a yellowish green bill.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (16 inch) gull with gray back and wings; spotted black-and-white wing tips; bright red bill and legs; white iris.
- •Identification: Similar to Silver Gull except larger (2 feet long), legs pinkish, bill yellow with a red spot, and iris yellow.
- •Identification: a medium-sized gull (to 17 inches) with a distinctive black or chocolate brown “hood,” red legs, and a gray back and wings.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (to 18 inches) black-headed gull with white eye-crescents, a dark gray back, and red legs and bill..
- •Ivory gull
- •Identification: An all-white gull with black legs and a blue-gray bill.
- •Identification: a large (to 22 inches) gull-like bird with a black cap and crest, light gray back and wings, forked tail, and long red bill with a black tip.
- •Identification: Similar to Caspian Tern but smaller (to 17 inches) and with a more deeply forked tail and slighter bill.
- •IdentifIfAtion: a crow-sized bird with cinnamon-brown plumage and a bare, blue-gray face..
- •Identification: Adult males are black with a red crown and a light blue patch on the back; yearling males and females are all green, while younger adult males are green with a reddish crown..
- •Identification: Small (5–7 inch) birds with brown and rufous plumage and a bluish gray patch around the eyes; Ocellateds have a distinctive scalloped pattern on the back feathers.
- •Identification: a small (5 inch), plain olive-green bird with a long tail and an ocher- or tawny-colored lower breast.
- •Identification: a small to medium-sized swallow with iridescent blue-green upperparts, white underparts, and a tail that is only slightly forked.
- •Identification: a bluish brown swallow with pale underparts, buff forehead, and a chestnut throat; tail is not forked..
- •Identification: a small, sparrow-sized swallow with a slightly forked tail, brown plumage, white underparts, and a brown breast band.
- •Identification: a small songbird with bright yellow underparts, olive green upperparts, and a black crown (“hood”) and throat in adult males and some females (see below).
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with olive-brown plumage, distinctive white shoulder bars, and (in males) blue-gray crown.
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with olive to orange-red plumage and a distinctive crossed bill..
- •Identification: a small (61/2 inch) bird with a thick, hooked bill, grayish brown plumage, and a darker facial mask (black in males)..
- •Identification: a tiny (41/2 inch) chickadee-like bird with a bright blue crown, black-and-white face, bluish green plumage, and yellow underparts.
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with bright blue plumage, white underparts, and a chestnut throat and breast.
- •Identification: a grayish buff, sparrow-sized bird with a pale gray-white crown..
- •Identification: a drab, sparrowlike bird with brownish gray plumage and a black throat patch..
- •Identification: The familiar black-bibbed sparrow; Cowbird is iridescent black with a dark brown head..
- •Identification: Light gray plumage, black wings and tail, and (in some birds) bare yellow head and fleshy black wattles.
- •Identification: a small crow with black plumage and gray on the back of the head.
- •Identification: a large (2 foot), all-black bird similar to a crow but much bulkier..
- •Victoria’s riflebird
- •Identification: Adult males are black with an iridescent sheen and metallic crown, throat, and central tail feathers; females and younger males are drabber, with brown, buff, and off-white plumage.
- •Identification: a thrush-sized bird (12 inches) with velvety black plumage and brilliant golden yellow crown, nape, upper back, and wing feathers.
- •Identification: a pheasant-sized bird with brownish gray plumage, powerful legs and claws, and long, ornate tail feathers.
- •Identification: The largest living bird (over 6 feet tall), with striking black-and-white plumage in the male and powerful legs and claws.
- •Identification: The second-largest living bird (5—6 feet tall), with shaggy, brown plumage and bare patches of blue skin on the face and neck.
- •Identification: Similar to Ostrich but smaller (up to 41/2 feet tall) and with overall grayish brown plumage in both sexes.
- •Identification: a small penguin (approximately 2 feet tall) with a black band on its chest and patches of red skin at the base of its bill..
- •Identification: a large (3 foot tall) penguin with orange ear patches and a yellow-orange wash on the breast.
- •Identification: a medium-sized penguin (up to 21/2 feet) with a white patch above the eye.
- •Identification: a large vulture (wingspan up to 9 feet) with a white head and neck and brown plumage.
- •Insects
- •Introduction
Identification: The familiar large (up to 71/2 tons), trunked mammal with enormous ears and tusks in both sexes.
ASIATIC ELEPHANT
IDENTIFICATION: Similar to African Elephant, but smaller, with tusks only in males, face and ears often mottled, forehead more convex and back more sloping, ears much smaller, and trunk with two fingerlike tips.
Social Organization
Elephants have a complex and highly organized community life. Females usually live in matriarchal herds of up to 50 individuals (loosely organized into family groups) led by an older female and generally containing no permanent adult males. Bulls often form male-only herds of 7–15 individuals (particularly in the African species), but may also be loners. Breeding males associate only temporarily with the female herds and mate with several different females.
Description
Behavioral Expression: Both African and Asiatic Elephant males participate in homosexual mounting. Among African Elephants, same-sex activity—which often takes place at or in watering holes—may be preceded by a great deal of caressing and affectionate behaviors. Two males intertwine their trunks, gently nudge each other, touch mouths in a “kiss,” place their trunk tips in each other’s mouth, roll over one another, and generally frolic together (sometimes with erections). One male often signals his intention to mount by extending his trunk along the other male’s back, sometimes pushing him forward with his tusks (a gesture also used in sexual interactions between males and females). Homosexual mounting may also be preceded by one male sniffing or touching the other’s penis with the tip of his trunk. Mounting occurs in the typical heterosexual position, with one male behind the other, and often the mounting male has an erect penis. Homosexual mating lasts about the same length as heterosexual mating, generally less than a minute, although one male may mount another several times in succession. Both older bulls and younger males participate in this activity. Among Asiatic Elephants, same-sex mounting sometimes occurs as part of play-fighting, in which two males swing their trunks at each other and gently rush at and butt one another. In African Elephants living in bull herds, a form of “erotic combat” also occurs. Two males push against each other while locking tusks and intertwining trunks; this activity stimulates the males sexually, and they develop full erections over up to half a dozen such bouts. Mounting sometimes occurs following a bout.
Although female homosexual activity has not yet been observed among wild Elephants, in captivity females sometimes masturbate one another with their trunks (the female’s clitoris is nearly 17 inches long when erect or engorged). In addition, both female and male Asiatic Elephants in captivity engage in a variety of same-sex interactions with one another, including mounting activities and touching of the genitals with the trunk. Pregnant females also sometimes participate in these interactions.
Male Elephants also form “companionships,” usually composed of an older bull and an attendant younger male (in contrast, there are no long-lasting heterosexual bonds in these species). In African Elephants, the younger male often helps the older one by guarding him or pulling down branches for him; in other cases, the older bull may help a younger male (or vice versa) who is injured or suffering from blindness or paralysis. The two males are constant companions and generally isolated from other Elephants; occasionally, an older bull will have two younger attendants. Among Asiatic Elephants, such male companionships appear not to be as long-lasting as in African Elephants. Younger attendant males in African Elephants are sometimes reported to have enlarged genitalia.
A male African Elephant mounting another male
“Erotic combat” between two male African Elephants
Frequency: In wild African and Asiatic Elephants, homosexual mounting is a fairly common and regular occurrence, especially among younger bulls. In addition, Asiatic Elephant males spend an average of 10 percent of their time in play-fighting (which can also include mounting between males), while individual African Elephant bulls may participate in erotic combat up to four or five times a day during some times of the year. Approximately 18 percent of male Asiatic Elephants (not living in mixed-sex herds) have a male companion. In captivity, about 11 percent of social interactions between male Asiatic Elephants involve sexual activities, compared to approximately a quarter of social interactions between females; overall, roughly 45 percent of sexual interactions involve same-sex participants.
Orientation: Some younger Asiatic Elephant males that participate in homosexual activity are bisexual, since they may direct their sexual attentions to both males and females. However, some males are probably exclusively homosexual for at least part of their lives, since many Asiatic and African males do not participate in heterosexual activity until they are much older. African Elephant males in companionships are also exclusively same-sex oriented, since they are nonbreeders.
Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities
Elephant heterosexual life is frequently characterized by segregation and even antagonism between the sexes. In Asiatic Elephants, males and females often live separate from each other: males only associate with female herds about 25—30 percent of the time, and approximately 60 percent of the herds are not accompanied by males. As described above, Elephant herd structure is matriarchal, and females have even developed alternative parenting and “baby-sitting” arrangements without the contribution of males. Asiatic Elephant mothers often leave their calves in “nursery groups” that the adult females take turns looking after, allowing the other mothers to forage on their own. Female African Elephants often look after and occasionally even suckle other calves in their matriarchal groups. Furthermore, in both African and Asiatic species males experience a periodic sexual cycle known as MUSTH. A male in musth exhibits a number of characteristic physiological and behavioral changes, including increased aggression, ear waving and head swinging, infrasonic rumbling calls, continuous urinal discharge, and secretion by the temporal glands (located on either side of the head). Musth can last a few days to several months; during this time, males tend to associate more with females, but once musth is over, they usually return to male-only groups. Among African Elephants, bulls frequent special areas during their nonmusth time where their interactions are exclusively with other males, and they sometimes form a stronger association with one or two particular bulls.
During heterosexual interactions, females may be overtly aggressive toward males. Female Asiatic Elephants, for example, often charge and chase males (especially younger ones) that are trying to mate with them. In addition, males sometimes try to mount juvenile animals, who squeal in protest until a female intervenes. In fact, it is thought that female aggressiveness toward males contributes to a significant delay in breeding in this species: although males are sexually mature when about 10 years old, most do not begin breeding until about 17 years old. Reproductive suppression also occurs in African Elephants: the onset of puberty in females may be delayed by up to 10 years in some populations as a result of social, nutritional, or physiological stresses. In addition, most males do not father their first offspring until they are 30—35 years old—this is 15—20 years after they become sexually mature. Other nonbreeding individuals include loner males (often older, postreproductive individuals), males in “companionships” (described above), as well as postreproductive or menopausal females (generally older than 50 years), and females who have nonbreeding intervals of up to 13 years between calves. Heterosexual relations are further complicated by an apparent mismatch in the structure of the male and female genitalia: unlike in most mammals, the female’s vaginal opening is placed far forward on her belly, hampering access by the male. Although his penis is able to assume a special S-shape to reach her vulva, penetration is often difficult to achieve. On occasion, the male’s organ will contact the female’s anus rather than her vulva, and he may ejaculate before achieving penetration. Heterosexual relations also often include touching and stimulation of the genitals with the trunk; in captivity, one female was also observed rubbing her clitoris against a male’s side while he was lying down.
Other Species
Homosexual mounting in the Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) has been observed among adolescent females in captivity.
Other Mammals CARNIVORES LION