- •Introduction
- •Verreaux’s sifaka
- •Identification: Males reach 8–10 feet in length and have a massive neck, shoulders, and mane; females are smaller.
- •Identification: a large deer (standing 4-5 feet at the shoulder) with brownish red fur and a pale rump patch; males generally have enormous antlers and a long mane.
- •Identification: a 3-4-foot-tall deer with a brownish coat and large antlers (3 feet long) in males.
- •Identification: a medium-sized deer typically with a grayish brown coat and white underparts, and antlers in both sexes. Moose
- •Identification : The largest species of deer (weighing up to 1,300 pounds); has slender legs, a pendulous nose, and (in males) prominent palmate antlers and a dewlap or “bell” beneath the throat.
- •Identification: The tallest mammal (up to 19 feet), with a sloping back, enormously long neck, bony, knobbed “horns” in both sexes, and the familiar reddish brown spotted patterning.
- •Identification: a deer-sized mammal with distinctive, sharply forked horns in males and reddish brown fur with white patches.
- •Identification: a medium-sized gazelle; males have distinctive spiral horns and a black-and-white coat; females and juvenile males are tan colored.
- •Identification: a large wild sheep (weighing up to 300 pounds) with massive spiral horns in males; coat is brown with a white muzzle, underparts, and rump patch.
- •Identification: Similar to Bighorn, except smaller and with thinner horns; coat is all white or brownish black to gray,
- •Identification: a large (6—8—foot—long) mammal with long, shaggy fur, humped shoulders, and massive, down-sweeping horns.
- •Identification: a stocky, 3-foot-tall, goatlike mammal with shaggy white fur and sharp horns in both sexes.
- •Identification: An enormous buffalo (up to 61/2 feet high) with massive forequarters, humped shoulders, and (in males) a beard.
- •Identification: Similar to American Bison but more slender, less hunched, and with longer legs.
- •Identification: a huge (II-foot-long), usually black buffalo with massive, upward-curving horns in both sexes.
- •Identification: The familiar wild horse with a black-and-white-striped pattern; Mountain Zebras usually have a distinctive dewlap.
- •Identification: a 3—5-foot-long wild pig with a large head, prominent tusks, and distinctive warts in front of the eyes and on the jaw..
- •Identification: a piglike mammal with grayish, speckled, or salt-and-pepper fur and a light-colored collar.
- •Identification: The familiar large (up to 71/2 tons), trunked mammal with enormous ears and tusks in both sexes.
- •Identification: a large wild cat (up to 550 pounds) with a prominent mane in males.
- •Identification: a small canid (body length up to 3 feet) with a bushy tail and a reddish brown coat (although some variants are silvery or black).
- •Identification: The largest wild canid (reaching up to 7 feet in length) with a gray, brown, black, or white coat.
- •Identification: a small (3 foot long), reddish brown, bearlike canid with short legs and tail. Social Organization
- •Identification: a huge bear (7–10 feet tall) with dark brown, golden, cream, or black fur..
- •Identification: a smaller bear (4–6 feet) with coat color ranging from black to gray, brown, and even white. Park, Saskatchewan, Canada; subspecies u.A. Altifrontalis.
- •Identification: a yellowish brown hyena with spotted flanks and back, a strongly sloping body profile, and rounded ears; females typically heavier than males.
- •Identification: a large (over 3 foot tall) kangaroo with a gray coat and a hair-covered muzzle.
- •Identification: a smaller kangaroo (21/2 feet tall) with a reddish brown wash on its neck.
- •Identification: a light gray kangaroo standing up to 3 feet tall, with a white facial stripe and a long, slender tail.
- •Identification: a small (6–7 pound), rodentlike kangaroo with reddish brown fur.
- •Identification: Stocky, tree-dwelling kangaroos; chestnut or chocolate brown fur with lighter patches.
- •Identification: a small, mouselike marsupial with a thick, conical, fat-storing tail.
- •Identification: a catlike marsupial, up to 2 feet long, with grayish brown fur and white splotches.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (10—15 inch), primarily tree-dwelling squirrel with a reddish brown or tawny coat and white underparts, often with a dark stripe on the side.
- •Identification: a large (20 inch), tree-dwelling squirrel with a long, bushy tail and gray, grizzled, or buff fur.
- •Identification: Small, guinea-pig-like rodents with coarse fur; Dwarf Cavies have a distinctive white eye-ring, Cuis have yellow-colored incisors.
- •Identification: a small (less than I foot long) insectivore with sandy-colored spines, white underparts, and prominent ears.
- •Identification: a dark gray goose with fine silvery-white feather patterning; the wild ancestor of domestic geese.
- •Identification: a brown-plumaged goose with a distinctive black neck and white cheek patch; varies widely in size, from 2–24 pounds.
- •Identification: a pinkish-red-billed goose with two major color phases: all-white and “blue” (grayish plumage with a white head and neck).
- •Identification: The only swan with fully black plumage; wing feathers are white, bill is bright red, and the neck is especially long.
- •Identification: a large swan (up to 33 pounds) with a black knob at the base of its reddish orange bill (less prominent in females).
- •Identification: a familiar duck with a blue wing patch, an iridescent green head and white collar in males, and brown, mottled plumage in females.
- •Identification: a grayish brown duck with a light blue upper-wing patch, tawny spotted underparts, and white, crescent-shaped facial stripes in males.
- •Identification: a broad-billed duck with a purplish black head and breast and white underparts in males, and a dark head and brownish plumage in females.
- •Identification: Cinnamon breast, dark green head and back, and white collar; adult females have white eye and bill rings.
- •Identification: a large, grayish duck with a prominent lobe hanging from the lower bill, and a spike-fan tail..
- •Identification: a gull-sized, web-footed bird with contrasting black upperparts and white underparts; some individuals have a white eye ring.
- •Identification: a large, white-plumaged, gull-like bird with an enorous wingspan (over 61/2 feet), a dark back, and a grayish black wash on the face.
- •Identification: a large (3 foot), black, web-footed bird with a white throat and white filamentary plumes on the nape.
- •Identification: Similar to Great Cormorant, but smaller and uniformly black, with a prominent forehead crest.
- •Identification: a ducklike bird with grayish white plumage, bright red eyes, and yellow facial tufts.
- •Identification: Similar to Silvery Grebe, but with a buff or chestnut wash on the breast, white streaks on the head, and black-and-white eyes.
- •Identification: a stocky, medium-sized (2 foot long) heron with a black crown and back, white underparts, gray wings, and white ribbon plumes at the nape of the neck.
- •Identification: Long-legged, typically white herons with ornamental, filamentous plumes on the back, breast, and nape; these are golden-buff-colored in the Cattle Egret.
- •Identification: Similar to Little Egret but with slaty-gray plumage and a reddish brown head and neck.
- •Identification: a large (3 foot long) heron with a gray back, white head and neck, and black “eyebrow” stripe and nape plumes.
- •Identification: a large (nearly 20 inch) wading bird with bluish purple plumage, a red shield on its forehead, and red feet with long toes.
- •Identification: Similar to Pukeko, but flightless, and with grayish brown plumage, no red frontal shield, and shorter legs.
- •Identification: Similar to Pukeko, but with black plumage and shorter legs.
- •Identification: The largest flamingo species (4—5 feet tall) with plumage ranging from pale whitish pink to bright orange-pink.
- •Identification: a large (12 inch) sandpiper with gray or brownish plumage and, in some males, spectacular ruffs and feather tufts on the head that vary widely in color and pattern (see below).
- •Identification: a medium-sized (7—8 inch) wading bird with a small head and short beak, buff-colored face and underparts, and regular dark brown patterning on the back and crown.
- •Identification: a large (13—14 inch) sandpiper with streaked and spotted, dark brownish gray plumage; long and slightly upturned bill; greenish yellow legs.
- •Identification: Slightly smaller than the Greenshank; plumage grayish brown, with black and dark brown streaks and spots; orange-red legs.
- •Identification: a fairly large (12—15 inch) sandpiper-like bird with long pink legs, white plumage with black wings and back, and a slender black bill.
- •Identification: Similar to Black-winged Stilt but with entirely black plumage.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (10 inch) sandpiper-like bird with mottled buff and black plumage; adult males have a black face and underparts bordered with white.
- •Identification: a large gull (up to 27 inches) with a dark gray back and wings; spotted black-and-white wing tips; pink legs; and a yellow bill with a red spot.
- •Identification: a smaller gull (to 17 inches) with a blue-gray mantle; more pointed black wing tips; relatively short black legs and dark eyes; and a yellowish green bill.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (16 inch) gull with gray back and wings; spotted black-and-white wing tips; bright red bill and legs; white iris.
- •Identification: Similar to Silver Gull except larger (2 feet long), legs pinkish, bill yellow with a red spot, and iris yellow.
- •Identification: a medium-sized gull (to 17 inches) with a distinctive black or chocolate brown “hood,” red legs, and a gray back and wings.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (to 18 inches) black-headed gull with white eye-crescents, a dark gray back, and red legs and bill..
- •Ivory gull
- •Identification: An all-white gull with black legs and a blue-gray bill.
- •Identification: a large (to 22 inches) gull-like bird with a black cap and crest, light gray back and wings, forked tail, and long red bill with a black tip.
- •Identification: Similar to Caspian Tern but smaller (to 17 inches) and with a more deeply forked tail and slighter bill.
- •IdentifIfAtion: a crow-sized bird with cinnamon-brown plumage and a bare, blue-gray face..
- •Identification: Adult males are black with a red crown and a light blue patch on the back; yearling males and females are all green, while younger adult males are green with a reddish crown..
- •Identification: Small (5–7 inch) birds with brown and rufous plumage and a bluish gray patch around the eyes; Ocellateds have a distinctive scalloped pattern on the back feathers.
- •Identification: a small (5 inch), plain olive-green bird with a long tail and an ocher- or tawny-colored lower breast.
- •Identification: a small to medium-sized swallow with iridescent blue-green upperparts, white underparts, and a tail that is only slightly forked.
- •Identification: a bluish brown swallow with pale underparts, buff forehead, and a chestnut throat; tail is not forked..
- •Identification: a small, sparrow-sized swallow with a slightly forked tail, brown plumage, white underparts, and a brown breast band.
- •Identification: a small songbird with bright yellow underparts, olive green upperparts, and a black crown (“hood”) and throat in adult males and some females (see below).
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with olive-brown plumage, distinctive white shoulder bars, and (in males) blue-gray crown.
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with olive to orange-red plumage and a distinctive crossed bill..
- •Identification: a small (61/2 inch) bird with a thick, hooked bill, grayish brown plumage, and a darker facial mask (black in males)..
- •Identification: a tiny (41/2 inch) chickadee-like bird with a bright blue crown, black-and-white face, bluish green plumage, and yellow underparts.
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with bright blue plumage, white underparts, and a chestnut throat and breast.
- •Identification: a grayish buff, sparrow-sized bird with a pale gray-white crown..
- •Identification: a drab, sparrowlike bird with brownish gray plumage and a black throat patch..
- •Identification: The familiar black-bibbed sparrow; Cowbird is iridescent black with a dark brown head..
- •Identification: Light gray plumage, black wings and tail, and (in some birds) bare yellow head and fleshy black wattles.
- •Identification: a small crow with black plumage and gray on the back of the head.
- •Identification: a large (2 foot), all-black bird similar to a crow but much bulkier..
- •Victoria’s riflebird
- •Identification: Adult males are black with an iridescent sheen and metallic crown, throat, and central tail feathers; females and younger males are drabber, with brown, buff, and off-white plumage.
- •Identification: a thrush-sized bird (12 inches) with velvety black plumage and brilliant golden yellow crown, nape, upper back, and wing feathers.
- •Identification: a pheasant-sized bird with brownish gray plumage, powerful legs and claws, and long, ornate tail feathers.
- •Identification: The largest living bird (over 6 feet tall), with striking black-and-white plumage in the male and powerful legs and claws.
- •Identification: The second-largest living bird (5—6 feet tall), with shaggy, brown plumage and bare patches of blue skin on the face and neck.
- •Identification: Similar to Ostrich but smaller (up to 41/2 feet tall) and with overall grayish brown plumage in both sexes.
- •Identification: a small penguin (approximately 2 feet tall) with a black band on its chest and patches of red skin at the base of its bill..
- •Identification: a large (3 foot tall) penguin with orange ear patches and a yellow-orange wash on the breast.
- •Identification: a medium-sized penguin (up to 21/2 feet) with a white patch above the eye.
- •Identification: a large vulture (wingspan up to 9 feet) with a white head and neck and brown plumage.
- •Insects
- •Introduction
Identification: a 3—5-foot-long wild pig with a large head, prominent tusks, and distinctive warts in front of the eyes and on the jaw..
COLLARED PECCARY
Identification: a piglike mammal with grayish, speckled, or salt-and-pepper fur and a light-colored collar.
Social Organization
Warthogs tend to associate in matriarchal groups (also known as SOUNDERS) of several females and their offspring, and in all-male “bachelor” groups. Only 3 percent of groups contain both males and females, and many Warthog males are solitary. Males join female groups only briefly for mating, which is usually promiscuous—both males and females copulate with multiple partners—and the only long-lasting bonds that form are between animals of the same sex, primarily females. Collared Peccaries live in herds of 5–15 individuals, containing animals of both sexes.
Description
Behavioral Expression: Homosexual mounting occurs in both Collared Peccaries and Warthogs. In Collared Peccaries, females in heat often RIDE or mount other females, and males occasionally mount one another as well. In Warthogs, homosexual mounting also takes place among females in heat, though it is less common. Sometimes a female Warthog will mount another female from the side, a position that is also occasionally used in heterosexual mounting. Warthog females often develop long-lasting bonds with each other, and same-sex mounting can be a part of these pairings (stable male-female pairs do not occur in this species). The two females associate together for many years and may even jointly raise their young, combining their litters and suckling each other’s offspring. In addition, when one female is injured or temporarily unable to look after her young, the other female will take over parental duties. One such pair was seen consistently chasing away males who tried to get close to them. Biologists studying Warthogs call these pairs or groups of adult females without any males or offspring SPINSTER groups—they typically contain an older female with a younger one. Some of these pairings involve related females, such as sisters or mother and daughter—in which case some same-sex mounting may be incestuous—although nonrelated pairings also occur. Occasionally two male Warthogs pair off as well, though no sexual behavior has been observed between them.
female Collared Peccary “riding” another female
Frequency: Homosexual mounting occurs commonly in Collared Peccaries during heat; it is less frequent in Warthogs, probably comprising 1–3 percent of all mountings. About 5 percent of all Warthog groups are “spinster” (female-only) groups.
Orientation: Females that participate in same-sex mounting are probably bisexual, since most also engage in heterosexual relations. Warthog female companions, for example, may mate with males and reproduce, even if they do not consistently socialize with males. More than a quarter of Warthog females do not get pregnant each season, however, so it is possible that some are involved exclusively in same-sex (bonding and/or sexual) activities.
Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities
Significant portions of Warthog populations do not procreate. In addition to the nonbreeding females and sex-segregated groups mentioned above, one- and two-year-olds that are sexually mature may remain with their mother’s group to help raise additional litters (rather than breeding themselves). These two species also participate in a variety of nonreproductive sexual behaviors. About 6 percent of heterosexual activity in Collared Peccaries, for example, involves females mounting males (REVERSE mounts), while another 22 percent of copulations are incomplete mounts by males. Males also frequently mount females during nonfertile periods, including pregnancy. Male Warthogs have been observed spontaneously ejaculating, including in their sleep. In addition, opposite-sex mountings in both species sometimes consist of a male mounting the female from the side without actual penetration (about 2 percent of sexual behavior in Collared Peccaries). Moreover, insemination does not necessarily occur even if penetration does, due to VAGINAL PLUGS. In both Collared Peccaries and Warthogs, a gelatinous barrier in the female’s reproductive tract is deposited by a male when he copulates, very likely insuring that sperm from any subsequent matings cannot impregnate the female. Since female Warthogs usually copulate with more than one male, and female Collared Peccaries often mate repeatedly with the same male (as many as 18 times in three hours), a large proportion of copulations are therefore probably nonprocreative. Females can also refuse copulations by covering the vulva with their tail and tightening their leg muscles upward. In Collared Peccaries, offspring are cared for not only by their biological mothers, but also by “nursemaids,” usually older sisters of the youngsters, that defend and nurse them. Often the nursemaids are not in fact sexually mature—they may be as young as six months old—with the amazing consequence that many nursemaids are themselves still nursing from their own “nursemaids.” It is thought that they are able to produce milk because they consume the mother’s placenta when she gives birth, perhaps thereby receiving some sort of hormonal influence from the mother. In Warthogs a number of violent counterrepro-ductive activities also occur: adult males occasionally kill their younger brothers or cannibalize other males that they kill.
Other Species
Same-sex mounting also occurs in White-lipped Peccaries (Tayassu pecari) among both males and females.
IDENTIFICATION: A small (3 feet at shoulder), camel-like animal with a slender body and a long, thin neck; coat is tawny brown or sandy-colored with white underparts and a chest mane. DISTRIBUTION: Andes Mountains of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile. HABITAT: High-elevation grasslands, plains. STUDY AREAS: Aricoma and Huaylarco, Peru.
Social Organization
Vicuñas live in cosexual groups usually containing 1 male, 3–10 females, and their offspring. In addition, all-male groups are a regular feature of Vicuña populations; they usually contain 5–10 animals, but may swell to include more than 150 individuals.
Description
Behavioral Expression: Female Vicuñas sometimes mount each other, with one animal straddling the other’s back with her forelegs. This is similar to a heterosexual mating, except the mounted animal does not typically lie down as she would if a male were mounting her (even in heterosexual interactions, though, the female does not always cooperate by lying down). In one case, a pregnant female chased another female and mounted her. Adolescent males also sometimes mount one another during play-fighting, remaining astraddle for up to a quarter of a minute. Play-fights are gentle frolics in which the two males push and wrestle each other with their heads and long necks, interspersed with chasing or rearing on the hind legs.
Frequency: Same-sex mounting probably occurs only sporadically in Vicuñas. However, heterosexual mating is also infrequent: during a seven-month study period, for example, 5–11 heterosexual matings were observed compared to one mount between females.
Orientation: At least some females that mount other females are bisexual, since this behavior occurs in pregnant females. During the time that adolescent males are living in bachelor groups, the majority of their mounting activities are same-sex. Many of these males will go on to mate heterosexually, although about 10 percent of the nonbreeding animals in male bands are adults.
Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities
About 40 percent of Vicuñas do not breed: many are younger males living in the sex-segregated male groups (although these also include some adults), and there are solitary older animals as well. Among breeding animals, there is often considerable antagonism between the sexes: males have been known to fight with pregnant females, and territorial males are openly hostile toward females from neighboring bands, often chasing and attacking them. During copulation, females sometimes refuse to lie down; a male may try to force his partner to mate by bringing his full weight onto her back, causing the female to stagger underneath him. Adult males occasionally copulate with yearling females, who are probably not old enough to breed. Sexual activity between males and females also takes place outside of the breeding season.
AFRICAN ELEPHANT