- •Introduction
- •Verreaux’s sifaka
- •Identification: Males reach 8–10 feet in length and have a massive neck, shoulders, and mane; females are smaller.
- •Identification: a large deer (standing 4-5 feet at the shoulder) with brownish red fur and a pale rump patch; males generally have enormous antlers and a long mane.
- •Identification: a 3-4-foot-tall deer with a brownish coat and large antlers (3 feet long) in males.
- •Identification: a medium-sized deer typically with a grayish brown coat and white underparts, and antlers in both sexes. Moose
- •Identification : The largest species of deer (weighing up to 1,300 pounds); has slender legs, a pendulous nose, and (in males) prominent palmate antlers and a dewlap or “bell” beneath the throat.
- •Identification: The tallest mammal (up to 19 feet), with a sloping back, enormously long neck, bony, knobbed “horns” in both sexes, and the familiar reddish brown spotted patterning.
- •Identification: a deer-sized mammal with distinctive, sharply forked horns in males and reddish brown fur with white patches.
- •Identification: a medium-sized gazelle; males have distinctive spiral horns and a black-and-white coat; females and juvenile males are tan colored.
- •Identification: a large wild sheep (weighing up to 300 pounds) with massive spiral horns in males; coat is brown with a white muzzle, underparts, and rump patch.
- •Identification: Similar to Bighorn, except smaller and with thinner horns; coat is all white or brownish black to gray,
- •Identification: a large (6—8—foot—long) mammal with long, shaggy fur, humped shoulders, and massive, down-sweeping horns.
- •Identification: a stocky, 3-foot-tall, goatlike mammal with shaggy white fur and sharp horns in both sexes.
- •Identification: An enormous buffalo (up to 61/2 feet high) with massive forequarters, humped shoulders, and (in males) a beard.
- •Identification: Similar to American Bison but more slender, less hunched, and with longer legs.
- •Identification: a huge (II-foot-long), usually black buffalo with massive, upward-curving horns in both sexes.
- •Identification: The familiar wild horse with a black-and-white-striped pattern; Mountain Zebras usually have a distinctive dewlap.
- •Identification: a 3—5-foot-long wild pig with a large head, prominent tusks, and distinctive warts in front of the eyes and on the jaw..
- •Identification: a piglike mammal with grayish, speckled, or salt-and-pepper fur and a light-colored collar.
- •Identification: The familiar large (up to 71/2 tons), trunked mammal with enormous ears and tusks in both sexes.
- •Identification: a large wild cat (up to 550 pounds) with a prominent mane in males.
- •Identification: a small canid (body length up to 3 feet) with a bushy tail and a reddish brown coat (although some variants are silvery or black).
- •Identification: The largest wild canid (reaching up to 7 feet in length) with a gray, brown, black, or white coat.
- •Identification: a small (3 foot long), reddish brown, bearlike canid with short legs and tail. Social Organization
- •Identification: a huge bear (7–10 feet tall) with dark brown, golden, cream, or black fur..
- •Identification: a smaller bear (4–6 feet) with coat color ranging from black to gray, brown, and even white. Park, Saskatchewan, Canada; subspecies u.A. Altifrontalis.
- •Identification: a yellowish brown hyena with spotted flanks and back, a strongly sloping body profile, and rounded ears; females typically heavier than males.
- •Identification: a large (over 3 foot tall) kangaroo with a gray coat and a hair-covered muzzle.
- •Identification: a smaller kangaroo (21/2 feet tall) with a reddish brown wash on its neck.
- •Identification: a light gray kangaroo standing up to 3 feet tall, with a white facial stripe and a long, slender tail.
- •Identification: a small (6–7 pound), rodentlike kangaroo with reddish brown fur.
- •Identification: Stocky, tree-dwelling kangaroos; chestnut or chocolate brown fur with lighter patches.
- •Identification: a small, mouselike marsupial with a thick, conical, fat-storing tail.
- •Identification: a catlike marsupial, up to 2 feet long, with grayish brown fur and white splotches.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (10—15 inch), primarily tree-dwelling squirrel with a reddish brown or tawny coat and white underparts, often with a dark stripe on the side.
- •Identification: a large (20 inch), tree-dwelling squirrel with a long, bushy tail and gray, grizzled, or buff fur.
- •Identification: Small, guinea-pig-like rodents with coarse fur; Dwarf Cavies have a distinctive white eye-ring, Cuis have yellow-colored incisors.
- •Identification: a small (less than I foot long) insectivore with sandy-colored spines, white underparts, and prominent ears.
- •Identification: a dark gray goose with fine silvery-white feather patterning; the wild ancestor of domestic geese.
- •Identification: a brown-plumaged goose with a distinctive black neck and white cheek patch; varies widely in size, from 2–24 pounds.
- •Identification: a pinkish-red-billed goose with two major color phases: all-white and “blue” (grayish plumage with a white head and neck).
- •Identification: The only swan with fully black plumage; wing feathers are white, bill is bright red, and the neck is especially long.
- •Identification: a large swan (up to 33 pounds) with a black knob at the base of its reddish orange bill (less prominent in females).
- •Identification: a familiar duck with a blue wing patch, an iridescent green head and white collar in males, and brown, mottled plumage in females.
- •Identification: a grayish brown duck with a light blue upper-wing patch, tawny spotted underparts, and white, crescent-shaped facial stripes in males.
- •Identification: a broad-billed duck with a purplish black head and breast and white underparts in males, and a dark head and brownish plumage in females.
- •Identification: Cinnamon breast, dark green head and back, and white collar; adult females have white eye and bill rings.
- •Identification: a large, grayish duck with a prominent lobe hanging from the lower bill, and a spike-fan tail..
- •Identification: a gull-sized, web-footed bird with contrasting black upperparts and white underparts; some individuals have a white eye ring.
- •Identification: a large, white-plumaged, gull-like bird with an enorous wingspan (over 61/2 feet), a dark back, and a grayish black wash on the face.
- •Identification: a large (3 foot), black, web-footed bird with a white throat and white filamentary plumes on the nape.
- •Identification: Similar to Great Cormorant, but smaller and uniformly black, with a prominent forehead crest.
- •Identification: a ducklike bird with grayish white plumage, bright red eyes, and yellow facial tufts.
- •Identification: Similar to Silvery Grebe, but with a buff or chestnut wash on the breast, white streaks on the head, and black-and-white eyes.
- •Identification: a stocky, medium-sized (2 foot long) heron with a black crown and back, white underparts, gray wings, and white ribbon plumes at the nape of the neck.
- •Identification: Long-legged, typically white herons with ornamental, filamentous plumes on the back, breast, and nape; these are golden-buff-colored in the Cattle Egret.
- •Identification: Similar to Little Egret but with slaty-gray plumage and a reddish brown head and neck.
- •Identification: a large (3 foot long) heron with a gray back, white head and neck, and black “eyebrow” stripe and nape plumes.
- •Identification: a large (nearly 20 inch) wading bird with bluish purple plumage, a red shield on its forehead, and red feet with long toes.
- •Identification: Similar to Pukeko, but flightless, and with grayish brown plumage, no red frontal shield, and shorter legs.
- •Identification: Similar to Pukeko, but with black plumage and shorter legs.
- •Identification: The largest flamingo species (4—5 feet tall) with plumage ranging from pale whitish pink to bright orange-pink.
- •Identification: a large (12 inch) sandpiper with gray or brownish plumage and, in some males, spectacular ruffs and feather tufts on the head that vary widely in color and pattern (see below).
- •Identification: a medium-sized (7—8 inch) wading bird with a small head and short beak, buff-colored face and underparts, and regular dark brown patterning on the back and crown.
- •Identification: a large (13—14 inch) sandpiper with streaked and spotted, dark brownish gray plumage; long and slightly upturned bill; greenish yellow legs.
- •Identification: Slightly smaller than the Greenshank; plumage grayish brown, with black and dark brown streaks and spots; orange-red legs.
- •Identification: a fairly large (12—15 inch) sandpiper-like bird with long pink legs, white plumage with black wings and back, and a slender black bill.
- •Identification: Similar to Black-winged Stilt but with entirely black plumage.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (10 inch) sandpiper-like bird with mottled buff and black plumage; adult males have a black face and underparts bordered with white.
- •Identification: a large gull (up to 27 inches) with a dark gray back and wings; spotted black-and-white wing tips; pink legs; and a yellow bill with a red spot.
- •Identification: a smaller gull (to 17 inches) with a blue-gray mantle; more pointed black wing tips; relatively short black legs and dark eyes; and a yellowish green bill.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (16 inch) gull with gray back and wings; spotted black-and-white wing tips; bright red bill and legs; white iris.
- •Identification: Similar to Silver Gull except larger (2 feet long), legs pinkish, bill yellow with a red spot, and iris yellow.
- •Identification: a medium-sized gull (to 17 inches) with a distinctive black or chocolate brown “hood,” red legs, and a gray back and wings.
- •Identification: a medium-sized (to 18 inches) black-headed gull with white eye-crescents, a dark gray back, and red legs and bill..
- •Ivory gull
- •Identification: An all-white gull with black legs and a blue-gray bill.
- •Identification: a large (to 22 inches) gull-like bird with a black cap and crest, light gray back and wings, forked tail, and long red bill with a black tip.
- •Identification: Similar to Caspian Tern but smaller (to 17 inches) and with a more deeply forked tail and slighter bill.
- •IdentifIfAtion: a crow-sized bird with cinnamon-brown plumage and a bare, blue-gray face..
- •Identification: Adult males are black with a red crown and a light blue patch on the back; yearling males and females are all green, while younger adult males are green with a reddish crown..
- •Identification: Small (5–7 inch) birds with brown and rufous plumage and a bluish gray patch around the eyes; Ocellateds have a distinctive scalloped pattern on the back feathers.
- •Identification: a small (5 inch), plain olive-green bird with a long tail and an ocher- or tawny-colored lower breast.
- •Identification: a small to medium-sized swallow with iridescent blue-green upperparts, white underparts, and a tail that is only slightly forked.
- •Identification: a bluish brown swallow with pale underparts, buff forehead, and a chestnut throat; tail is not forked..
- •Identification: a small, sparrow-sized swallow with a slightly forked tail, brown plumage, white underparts, and a brown breast band.
- •Identification: a small songbird with bright yellow underparts, olive green upperparts, and a black crown (“hood”) and throat in adult males and some females (see below).
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with olive-brown plumage, distinctive white shoulder bars, and (in males) blue-gray crown.
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with olive to orange-red plumage and a distinctive crossed bill..
- •Identification: a small (61/2 inch) bird with a thick, hooked bill, grayish brown plumage, and a darker facial mask (black in males)..
- •Identification: a tiny (41/2 inch) chickadee-like bird with a bright blue crown, black-and-white face, bluish green plumage, and yellow underparts.
- •Identification: a sparrow-sized bird with bright blue plumage, white underparts, and a chestnut throat and breast.
- •Identification: a grayish buff, sparrow-sized bird with a pale gray-white crown..
- •Identification: a drab, sparrowlike bird with brownish gray plumage and a black throat patch..
- •Identification: The familiar black-bibbed sparrow; Cowbird is iridescent black with a dark brown head..
- •Identification: Light gray plumage, black wings and tail, and (in some birds) bare yellow head and fleshy black wattles.
- •Identification: a small crow with black plumage and gray on the back of the head.
- •Identification: a large (2 foot), all-black bird similar to a crow but much bulkier..
- •Victoria’s riflebird
- •Identification: Adult males are black with an iridescent sheen and metallic crown, throat, and central tail feathers; females and younger males are drabber, with brown, buff, and off-white plumage.
- •Identification: a thrush-sized bird (12 inches) with velvety black plumage and brilliant golden yellow crown, nape, upper back, and wing feathers.
- •Identification: a pheasant-sized bird with brownish gray plumage, powerful legs and claws, and long, ornate tail feathers.
- •Identification: The largest living bird (over 6 feet tall), with striking black-and-white plumage in the male and powerful legs and claws.
- •Identification: The second-largest living bird (5—6 feet tall), with shaggy, brown plumage and bare patches of blue skin on the face and neck.
- •Identification: Similar to Ostrich but smaller (up to 41/2 feet tall) and with overall grayish brown plumage in both sexes.
- •Identification: a small penguin (approximately 2 feet tall) with a black band on its chest and patches of red skin at the base of its bill..
- •Identification: a large (3 foot tall) penguin with orange ear patches and a yellow-orange wash on the breast.
- •Identification: a medium-sized penguin (up to 21/2 feet) with a white patch above the eye.
- •Identification: a large vulture (wingspan up to 9 feet) with a white head and neck and brown plumage.
- •Insects
- •Introduction
Identification: An enormous buffalo (up to 61/2 feet high) with massive forequarters, humped shoulders, and (in males) a beard.
WISENT
Identification: Similar to American Bison but more slender, less hunched, and with longer legs.
AFRICAN BUFFALO
Identification: a huge (II-foot-long), usually black buffalo with massive, upward-curving horns in both sexes.
Social Organization
Adult males (bulls) in American and European Bison generally live separately from females in groups that may contain up to 12 animals, or else solitarily. Females, their calves, and younger males (generally less than three or four years old) all live together in their own groups. For two months out of the year, female groups aggregate and adult males join these larger herds (which may contain hundreds of animals) for the rutting season. The mating system is “serial monogamy” within an overall framework of polygamy, i.e., males mate with several females, but remain exclusively with each female for a short period. African Buffalo have a similar social organization, living in herds ranging in size from 40–1,500 animals, mostly composed of females and their young in family groups, along with some adult males for part of the year. In addition, about 15 percent of adult males live in smaller bachelor herds, and older males may form peripheral groups.
Description
Behavioral Expression: Male American Bison participate in a variety of homosexual activities. Among younger bulls (less than five years old, particularly one-to-three-year-olds), anal intercourse is common. One male mounts the other with an erect penis and achieves anal penetration; the animal being mounted often facilitates the sexual interaction by positioning his hips or backing toward the other male with his tail lifted to the side. Homosexual copulation lasts on average nearly twice as long as heterosexual mating. The same bull may be mounted several times in succession by one or several other males, but reciprocal mounting is less common, since bulls that mount other males often do not allow themselves to be mounted (although males that are mounted do try to mount their partners). Males that are frequently mounted by other males often exhibit tears in the skin on their back where the mounting bull’s hooves rub on either side of their spine. An identical type of skin abrasion is seen in female Bison that are frequently mounted by males. Homosexual mounting also occurs in a number of other contexts: in Bison (both American and European) and African Buffalo, males sometimes mount each other during play-fighting. An adult male American Bison may also mount another bull at the conclusion of an aggressive interaction. In these two contexts, mounting usually does not involve penetration, although erection of the penis and pelvic thrusting may occur. Sometimes one male will rest his chin on the other’s rump as a prelude to mounting, often while making a soft panting sound. Female homosexual mounting and CHIN-RESTING also occur in Wisent and African Buffalo.
American Bison bulls—especially younger males—also sometimes form a TENDING BOND or consortship with another male. This paired association resembles the temporary (from a few hours to several days) monogamous bond formed between males and females during the rutting season. In a homosexual tending, one male closely follows and defends another male and may mount him as well. In some pairs mounting is reciprocal; in others, only one partner mounts or is mounted. In addition, younger males sometimes form “tending groups” of four to five individuals who take turns mounting one another or the same individual. Homosexual tending groups are unique in the joint participation of all the males in sexual activity: although several males often accompany heterosexual tending pairs, they never participate in sexual activity with either member of the pair.
Among American Bison, various types of intersexuality or hermaphroditism occasionally occur spontaneously in nature. Some transgendered individuals are known as BUFFALO ox and grow to be extraordinarily tall—they may be one and a half times bigger than a nontransgendered bull and generally have shorter fur as well. Other intersexual individuals are intermediate in size between males and females, possess malelike horns, and have female external genitalia and a uterus combined with testes. During tending bonds, these animals interact with both males and females: one individual tended females the way a (heterosexual) male would, but was also tended by other bulls as in heterosexual and homosexual interactions.
Frequency: Homosexual mounting is very prevalent among American Bison bulls, especially during the rutting season, when it may be seen several times a day. In fact, homosexual mounting is more common than heterosexual mounting in this species, since each female rarely mates with a male more than once a year, while each male may engage in same-sex mounting many times a day. The behavior is especially frequent among younger males, peaking in three-year-olds. Studies of semiwild populations have found that more than 55 percent of mounting in younger males is same-sex, and for some age categories all mounting behavior may be homosexual. It is less common among older adult males and three-to-four-year-olds. Female homosexual mounting in Bison and African Buffalo, as well as male same-sex mounting in African Buffalo, occurs occasionally.
Orientation: In American (and probably also European) Bison, younger bulls—nearly two-thirds of the male population—are functionally bisexual, although many actually participate exclusively in homosexual activity. It was once thought that such males only engage in homosexual mounting because older bulls prevent their access to females; however, studies on captive herds have shown that bulls still participate extensively in homosexual activity even when older bulls are not present. Older bulls, as well as females in Wisent and African Buffalo, are probably functionally bisexual but primarily heterosexual, with many individuals never engaging in homosexual activity.
Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities
As noted above, large portions of the Bison bull population do not breed: males of both the American and European species are sexually mature by the time they are three years old, yet they do not get a chance to breed until they are six and large enough to compete with older males. Even among older bulls, more than a quarter do not copulate heterosexually during the rutting period, and as many as 15 percent of females may not breed in a given year. In Wisent and African Buffalo, there are some postreproductive males and females as well—older individuals who have ceased breeding in the later years of their life. Nonprocreative sexual activities also figure in the social lives of heterosexual Bison: female American Bison often mount the male during tending, for example, and male Wisent occasionally ejaculate by rubbing the penis against the female’s flanks. More than 20 percent of American Bison females engage in repeated copulations (only a single mating is necessary for procreation), and Wisent females have been observed mating with the same male eight times within half an hour. Wisent females also occasionally copulate during pregnancy (as late as three to four days before birth), and heterosexual activity sometimes occurs outside the breeding season. In American Bison, a notable separation and even hostility often exists between the sexes. As mentioned above, males and females live apart from one another for most of the year; during the rutting season, females frequently refuse the advances of males, and females often bear the scars of repeated heterosexual matings (described above). Wisent family life is occasionally marked by violence or abuse: calves have been killed by rutting bulls, and females sometimes desert their calves (especially those born late in the calving season).
Other Species
Among feral Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis ) in Australia, female homosexual mounting is common: all cows mount other cows in heat, with 15–20 percent of the female population participating at any given time.
OTHER HOOFED MAMMALS
MOUNTAIN, PLAINS ZEBRAS