Ответ на 21 вопрос!

21. LEVELS OF EQUIVALENCE AND THE CONCEPT OF ADEQUATE TRANSLATIONS.

a) V.G. Gak, In. Levin’s levels of equivalence: formal, semantic and situational;

b) V.N. Komissarov: 5 levels of equivalence, their characteristic features;

c) the concept of adequate translation:

* adequate translation

* literal translation

* free translation

d) Ways of adequate translation

Losses and their compensation

1. Levels of equivalence and the main approaches to translation

Levels of equivalence. In the theory of translation different ideas have been put forward concerning the types and levels of equivalence in translation. For instance, V. G. Gak and Ju. Levin distinguish the following types of equivalence: formal, semantic and situational.

Formal equivalence may be illustrated by such cases as "The sun disappeared behind a cloud" – “Солнце скрылось за тучей”.

Here we find similarity of words and forms in addition to the similarity of meanings. The differences in the plane of expression

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(referential equivalence of different semantic components). The latter is preferable to situational equivalence for descriptions of the same situation are not necessary semantically equivalent.

The following major types of translation equivalence are found: 1)formal equivalence + semantic componential equivalence + pragmatic equivalence; 2)semantic-componential and/or referential equivalence + pragmatic equivalence; 3)pragmatic equivalence alone. Pragmatic equivalence, which implies a close fit between communicative intent and the receptor's response, is required at all levels of equivalence. It may sometimes appear alone, without formal or semantic equivalence, as in this case: «С днем рождения» - "Many happy returns of the day".

V.N. Komissarov distinguishes between 5 types or levels of equivalence.

The first three deal with rendering of the functional and situational content of the source language text. The 4th and the 5th are attained when rendering the semantics of the language units. Here are the characteristic features of them:

At the 1st level only the communicative intent is rendered in translation, there may be found no traces of parallel syntactic patterns, nor word equivalents, e.g. Maybe there’s some chemistry between us that doesn’t mix – Бывает, люди не сходятся характерами (the communicative intent here is to render the figurative meaning); That’s a pretty thing to say! – Постыдился бы! (the communicative intent is to express the speaker’s emotions).

At the 2nd level of equivalence besides the communicative intent, the situation of communication remains the same but it is described by different lexical means, e.g. Pull – Push – К себе – от себя; We locked the door to keep the thieves out – мы заперли дверь, чтобы воры не проникли в дом; Stop, I have a gun! – Стой, стрелять буду!

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communication, describe it from the same point of view, preserve the syntactic patterns and find adequate lexical units in the target language, sometimes even having the same semes and if not, the losses of information are usually compensated for in different parts of the sentence or by different means, e.g. Do you know anything about books? – Yes, I am a bookkeeper. – Holy Moses! Our job is getting rid of them. My firm are publishers. – Вы что-нибудь смыслите в книгах? – Умею вести конторские книги. – У нас надо не вести книги, а избавляться от них. Ведь у нас издательство.

Adequate, literal and free translation. There is a fundamental difference between formal equivalence, on the one hand, and semantic and pragmatic equivalence, on the other. Formal equivalence may accompany semantic and pragmatic equivalence but it is by no means mandatory. The translator does not set himself the task of preserving the syntactic relations of the original. Nor does he aim at formal equivalence between the original and the translation. Usually formal equivalence results from similarity of grammatical forms and lexical items of the two languages. But it does not arise out of a deliberate effort. Adequate translation may be defined therefore as that which is determined by semantic and pragmatic equivalence between the original and target-language text. Cases of formal equivalence without semantic or pragmatic equivalence are usually described as literal translation. Literal translation

reproduces the linguistic form of the original regardless of semantic or pragmatic equivalence. It may reproduce the morphological and sound form as, for instance, in Chukovsky's well-known examples: композитор for compositor, Черри Орчард (Cherry Orchard) instead of «Вишневый сад». It may also reproduce lexical items, overlooking the idiomatic meaning of the phrase ("God bless my soul" -«Боже, благослови мою душу»).

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are, in fact, those determined by overall structural differences between Russian and English: the use of articles in English, the use of the perfective aspect, gender forms, etc. in Russian.

Semantic equivalence exists when the same meanings are expressed in the two languages in a different way: "Troops were airlifted to the battlefield" - «Войска были переброшены по воздуху на поле боя».

The English verb airlift contains the same meaning as the Russian phrase «перебросить по воздуху». Although different linguistic devices are used in Russian and in English (a word group and a compound word), the sum of semantic components is the same.

Situational equivalence is established between utterances that differ both in linguistic devices used and in the semantic components expressed but, nevertheless, describe the same extralinguistic situation: "to let someone pass" - «уступить дорогу». It should be noted that formal equivalence alone is insufficient. In fact, the above examples pertain to two types of semantic equivalence:

1) semantic equivalence + formal equivalence

2) semantic equivalence without formal equivalence

As to situational equivalence, it is, in our view, another variety of semantic equivalence that differs from the first type in that it is based not on the same semantic components but on the equivalence of meanings, made up of different semantic components. In other words, sum of different semantic components may be semantically equivalent (a+b = c+d; upside down = вверх ногами). We shall therefore speak of two types of semantic equivalence: componential (identity of semantic components) and referential

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At the 3d level of equivalence the translator is able not only to preserve the communicative intent and the situation of communication, but he uses the same way of description, e.g. Scrubbing makes me bad-tempered – От мытья полов у меня настроение портится, That will not be good for you – Это может для вас плохо кончиться.

What is important here is that sentences of the 3d type of equivalence are characterized by syntactic variations due to the fact that the Russian language tends to describe the situations more explicitly than English, the degree of detalization may differ, the distribution of separate characteristics may be different in the two languages, e.g. The tired speaker was silent – Оратор устало замолчал, They lay watching – Они лежали и следили за Фредом, He was thin and tentative as he slid his birth certificate from Puerto Rico across the desk – Худой мужчина неуверенно протянул свое свидетельство о рождении пуэрто-риканца через стол.

It is typical of the 4th level of equivalence in addition to what has been said about the first three, to render in translation most of meaningful units of the language as well as syntactic patterns of the sentences. Nevertheless we may observe some lexical or grammatical variations, e.g. He was never tired of old songs – Старые песни ему никогда не надоедали, Mine is a long and sad tale - Повесть моя длинна и печальна. Besides it may be typical of this type of equivalence to change the number and types of sentences, especially when translating newspaper texts.

The 5th type of equivalence is characterized by a maximum similarity of the content of the original and the translation, e.g. The house was sold for $10,000 – Дом был продан за 10 тысяч долларов. It is typical of this level to preserve the aim and situation of

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In other words, literal translation reproduces the form at the expense of the meaning and distorts the original. In some cases it may violate a stylistic norm as, for instance, in reproducing the syntactic form of the original message: "It was he who did it" - «Это был он, кто это сделал».

Finally, it may reproduce both the linguistic form and the denotational meaning but ignore the pragmatic aspects of the message. As a result, the message will not get across, and the intended communicative effect will not be attained (e.g. the English sentence, comparing "the sky to Guiseley sandstone", translated as «Небо было серым, как гизлейский песчаник», is pragmatically inadequate as sandstone in Guiseley is red).

Free translation, on the other hand, consists in pragmatically unmotivated additions and omissions of semantic information. In literal translation the translator distorts the message by slavishly reproducing the form while in free translation he distorts it by overstepping his authority and assuming the role of a co-author.

For instance, Irinarkh Vvedensky sometimes added pages of his own to Dickens's novels. He translates the phrase "She burst out crying" as «Слезы показались на прелестных глазах милой малютки». And the word "refuge" as «Приют, где наслаждался я мирным счастьем детских лет».

3. The ways of adequate translation. Grammatical and lexical parallelisms between the source language and the target language made it possible in some cases to retain formal equivalence without departing from semantic or pragmatic equivalence. Otherwise various lexico-grammatical transformations are used. (For details see the lectures on the lexical and grammatical problems of translation.)

Losses and their compensation. It will be recalled that some marginal elements of information may be lost in translation. Some of them may be compensated for by the use of different devices, sometimes in a different portion of the message. For instance, the Russian vernacular «Но ваше дело рисковое» (Sholokhov) may be translated as "But your job is damn risky" thus the use of a low colloquial lexical item (damn) compensates for the nonstandard morphological form (рисковое). In the phrase «подкинуть идейку» a derogatory connotation is expressed by the suffix. In the English phrase "to sell the idea" the noun is neutral but the derogatory connotation is shifted to the verb.

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22. The reflection of the nationally - cultural peculiarities in the lexical system of the English language

(language as a tool of culture; the background knowledge of the user; “cumulative function of the language”; the cultural background knowledge of the world; words without equivalents; cultural component of the word; additional shades of word meaning; culturally marked, territorially determined words, referring to the natural environment, food & drinks, etc [the Yorkshire Dales, the Yorkshire Moors, Lancashire cheese, Lancashire hotpot, Yorkshire pudding, high tea, haggis, alumnus, public school, Scottish bagpipe]).

1. The function of language as a tool of culture. The cultural background of a language

The function of language as a tool of culture is extremely important for many reasons. Language accumulates and stores the culture of a nation, and passes it on from generation to generation, or, for that matter, from nation to nation (“cumulative function of the language” Veretshagin E.M, Kostomarov V.G.).

The use of language largely depends on the background knowledge of the user, which is why cultural studies are indispensable in foreign language learning and teaching. Without the cultural background knowledge of the world where it is naturally used the language turns into a dead language.

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It is far from being restricted to words denoting exclusively some national things that have no equivalents in other languages. They are just different at the level of reality, they are specific objects, and therefore specific concepts, specific words.

If language were a photograph, it would be possible to divide it into squares and the squares would be interchangeable. The life of foreign language teachers, interpreters, translators would be much easier. But we have pictures, not photographs, as every nation’s vision of the world is determined by so many factors peculiar to that particular nation: its history, geography, culture, mode of life, mentality, etc. Even every family has its own phrases which are understood only by the members of the family. And to understand them one needs comments, explanations, etc.

2. The linguistic study of the country

A new and progressive way of teaching cultural studies to students of a foreign language is to give them the fullest possible information about the world of the language under study. This is, by the way, a new term for the subject introduced in the curriculum: the world of the language under study, the linguistic study of the country (at the faculty of foreign languages of Elabuga State Pedagogical University). Thus, the new way of teaching this new subject is to deliver the course by having two parallel courses presenting this world from two points of view: through the eyes of the native speaker and through the eyes of a representative of the world of the students. The studies of the world where the foreign language is naturally used as a means of communication are indispensable as an aid to understanding the peculiarities of speech production, additional shades of word meanings, their cultural, historical, political connotations, etc. Thus, the tasks of teaching a foreign language as a means of communication are closely intertwined with the tasks of studying the sociocultural aspects of the life of the peoples and countries where the foreign language is used.

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parents eat separately after the children are in bed. Haggis - a food eaten in Scotland, made from the heart and other organs of a sheep cut up and boiled inside a bag made from the sheep’s stomach. Haggis is typically eaten with boiled turnips and potatoes, known in Scotland as neeps and tatties. It is considered to be typical Scottish food.

It is quite true that the vocabulary used by American speakers, has distinctive features of its own. More then that: there are whole groups of words which belong to American vocabulary exclusively and constitute its specific feature. These words are called Americanisms. Later proper Americanisms are represented by names of objects which are called differently in the United States and in England.

Let’s investigate the functional differences of similar words, for example in the sphere of education. The fact is that these comparable words have additional shades of word meanings (overtones). Non-English language use is realized in a non-uniform manner depending on sociocultural conditions, the degree of ethnic self-awareness, etc. These lexical units reflect the nationally-cultural peculiarities in the lexical system of the English language. E.g. Academic teacher; instructor (AmE), university teacher; don (esp. at Oxford and Cambridge), lecturer (BrE) – преподаватель (ВУЗа); alumnus(AmE), graduate – (бывший) выпускник ВУЗа; alumnus(AmE), school-leaver (BrE) – (бывший) выпускник школы; ASEP (after school enrichment program) (AmE), extra-curricular work/ activities (BrE) – внеклассная работа; assistant professor (AmE), senior lecturer (BrE) – ассистент; преподаватель (ВУЗа); associate professor (AmE), reader (BrE) – cтарший преподаватель; доцент; (school) auditorium (AmE), assembly hall (BrE) – актовый зал; buzzer (AmE), bell (BrE) –школьный звонок; college; school; university (AmE), school (BrE) – учебное заведение; community/ junior college (AmE), college (BrE) – техникум; профессионально-техническое училище; diploma; (high) school diploma(AmE), GCE (the General Certificate of Education) (BrE) – документ об окончании средней школы; аттестат; dorm (itory) (AmE), hall(s) of residence; hostel (BrE) – студенческое общежитие; dropout (AmE), certificate

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Culture in the broad, anthropological meaning of the word (as opposed to its more narrow meaning of “arts”) may be defined as the way the people of a community see the world around them, their way of thinking, behaving, reacting to the world and to other people. Culture is manifested by intellectual, moral and physical attributes.

The word of reality, the real world, so many times referred to, is given to people by both their physical experience and their sociocultural experience. That is how the ‘culture’ life of the society comes in. Sociocultural structures underline linguistic structures. Language reflects sociocultural structures and relations, because it refers to objects through concepts.

That is why the cultural background of a language is so important and a language cannot be presented or studied, or taught, as the case may be, just as a list of meanings of separate words and the rules of grammar. Each speech community lives in a somewhat different world from that of others, and (that) these differences are both realized in parts in parts of their languages.

Language is part of culture (and culture is part of language) and it is impossible to use it as a means of communication (i.e. for the now so popular communicative purposes) without solid cultural background knowledge.

The sociocultural component of language is far from being confined to kilts*, tartan* and Scottish bagpipe* (words - realia).

Scottish bagpipe* was probably introduced by the Romans. It was popular all over the country in the Middle Ages. In Scotland the bagpipe is first recorded in the XV century during the reign of James I, who was a very good player. The sound of the bagpipe is very stirring. The old Highland clans and later the Highland regiments used to go into battle to the sound of the bagpipes. Bagpipe(s)* – шотландская волынка. Народный духовой, музыкальный инструмент, состоящий из меха- мешка из кожи или пузыря животного с вставленными в него трубками. Kilt* – a skirt with many pressed folds at the back and sides, and usually of a tartan pattern, worn esp. by Scotsmen. Tartan* - a special pattern on the cloth worn by a particular Scottish clan, and known by the clan’s name: the Macdonald tartan.

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3. The cultural component of lexical units

Here are some examples of territorially determined words, referring to the natural environment. The Yorkshire Dales (долина, дол) – an area of countryside, valleys and villages in the north of England. They are mainly in the county of North Yorkshire but also partly in Cambria. The area became a national park in 1954. It is considered one of the most beautiful areas in England and is especially popular with British people on walking holidays or making tours around it by car. The Yorkshire Moors (торфянистая местность, поросшая вереском) – areas of high, open land with few trees in North Yorkshire, England. They include the area known as the North York Moors. Fen country (фены, болотистая местность на востоке Англии – an area of low wet land in eastern England; loch (= lake, Scotland); white cliffs (меловые утёсы). The white cliffs of Dover – the first bit of England that can be seen when crossing the English Channel from France; a song sung by Vera Lynn during the Second World War ; canyon (AmE); prairie (AmE); muskeg (AmE озёрное болото, жидкая торфяная почва); cree (AmE топь, болото). Some more examples of culturally marked words, referring to food and drinks ethnographic realia, words without (full) equivalents. Yorkshire pudding – a baked mixture of flour, milk and eggs usu. served with or before beef esp. as part of a Sunday paper. Lancashire cheese is a type of mild white cheese that breaks easily into small pieces. It is traditionally made in Lancashire. Lancashire hotpot is a dish, originally made in Lancashire, consisting of lamb and other ingredients covered with slices of potato and baked in an oven. High tea – an early evening meal taken in some parts of Britain instead of afternoon tea or a later dinner , esp. by children whose

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(BrE) – справка о незаконченном среднем образовании; elective courses; electives (AmE), optional classes; optionals; subsidiary curriculum (BrE) – факультатив; expert (AmE), specialist; subject teacher (BrE) – преподаватель-предметник; faculty (AmE), (members) teachers; staff; permanent staff (BrE) – педагогический коллектив; преподавательский состав; freshman (AmE), 1st year undergraduate (undergrad); fresher (BrE) – первокурсник; (full) professor, professor (BrE) – профессор; grade (AmE), form; class (BrE) – класс (в школе); grade (AmE), mark (BrE) - оценка; отметка; grade/ elementary/ grammar school (ages 6-12) (AmE), primary school (infant school/ ages 5-7; junior school/ ages 7-11) (BrE) – начальная школа; graduate (AmE), school-leaver (BrE) – выпускник школы; graduate student (AmE), postgraduate student (BrE) – аспирант; graduate/ grad school (AmE), postgraduate school (BrE) – аспирантура.

Some of these units reflecting the nationally - cultural peculiarities in the English language are considered to be denotative realia (without equivalents) alumnus, fem. alumna, pl. alumni, alumnae fem. – a former student of a particular school, college or university; broadly a former member of any organization. Alumnus is associated with alma mater (Latin “generous mother”). The alma mater is an especially important idea to Americans. Alumni like to support, to promote the interests of their alma mater, to provide money for it. Alumni are active members of Alumni Associations.

It should be noted that there are similar words, though the Americans and the English use them in different meanings, are nevertheless found both in American and in British vocabularies. E.g. public school (BrE) – are, in most of Britain, independent schools and, despite their name, are not part of the state education system. Schools run by the state are called state schools. In Scotland however, which has a separate education system from the rest of Britain, the term public school refers to a state school. In the US a public school is a school run by the government.

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