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5) The complex sentence. The definition of the complex sentence. The notion of a polypredicative subordination. The principle and subordinate clauses (slot sentences and insert-sentences). Formative words used to connect the principal and subordinate clauses. Merger principal clauses and non-merger principal clauses. The principles of classification of subordinate clauses: Functional types of subordinate clauses; Categorial types of subordinate clauses.

The complex sentence is a polypredicative (with two or more predicative lines expressed) construction built up on the principle of subordination (hypotaxis). It is derived from 2 or more base sentences one of which performs the role of a matrix in relation to the others, the insert sentences. One becomes the principal clause and the other its subordinate clause (insert sentence). The principle and the subordinate clauses form a semantico-syntactic unity. It cannot be destroyed without affecting the structure of the sentence. The existence of either of clauses is supported by the existence of the other, e.g.: He looked as though he were looking at an absolute stranger.

The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either by a subordinating connector (subordinator) or asyndetically. Sometimes asyndetic connection is called zero subordinator. In this way the meaningful function of the asyndetic connection is stressed.

Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements (here: different predicative lines) –это я сама придумала

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The formative words linking the parts of a compound sentence fall into the following types:

1) coordinative conjunctions;

2) conjunctive adverbs;

3) fixed prepositional phrases.

Coordinative conjunctions are rather few in

number: and, but, or, yet, for.

Coordinate connectors can establish different semantic relations between clauses. Coordinate sentence linkers can be grouped in the following way:

1. Copulative, connecting two members and their meanings, often coming in pairs, then called correlatives: and; both... and; equally... and; alike... and; at once... and; not... nor for neither, or and neither); not (or never)... not (or nor)... either; neither... nor, etc.

2. Disjunctive, connecting two members, but disconnecting their meaning, the meaning in the second member excluding that in the first: or, and in questions whether... or with the force of simple or; or... either; either... or, etc., the disjunctive adverbs else, otherwise, or... or, or... else, in older English other else.

3. Adversative, connecting two members, but contrasting their meaning: but, but then, only, still, yet, and yet, however, on the other hand, again, on the contrary, etc.

4. Causal, adding an independent proposition explaining the preceding statement, represented only by the single conjunction: for:

The brook was very high, for a great deal of rain had fallen over night.

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5. Illative, introducing an inference, conclusion, consequence, result: namely, therefore, on that account, consequently, accordingly, for that reason, so, then, hence, etc.

6. Explanatory, connecting words, phrases or sentences and introducing an explanation or a particularisation: namely, that is, that is to say, or, such as, as, like, for example, for instance, say, let us say, etc.

Sentence-linking words, called conjunctive advebs are: consequently, furthermore, hence, however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore.

Some typical fixed prepositional phrases functioning as sentence linkers are: at least, as a result, after a while, in addition, in contrast, in the next place, on the other hand, for example, for instance.

Among the principal clauses there should be distinguished:

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* merger principal clauses;

* non-merger principal clauses.

The merger principal clauses characterize complex sentences with clausal deployment of their main parts.

The non-merger principal clauses characterize complex sentences with clausal deployment of their secondary parts.

The principal clause dominates the subordinate one positionally, but it doesn’t mean that their syntactic status determines the actual division of the sentence. An important role in theme-rheme division is played by the order of clauses. Compare the following sentences:

1. He is called Mitch (the theme), because his name is Mitchell (the rheme). – Principal clause expresses the starting point, while the subordinate clause renders the main idea (the speaker’s explanation of the reason of “calling him Mitch”).

2. As his name is Mitchell (the theme), he is called Mitch (the rheme). – The informative roles will be re-shaped accordingly.

One of the central problems concerning the complex sentences deals with the principles of classification of subordinate clauses. Within the traditional linguistics the 2 different principles have been put forward. The first is functional and the second is

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In accord with the functional principle subordinate clauses are classed on the basis of their similarity in function with parts of a simple sentence. Namely, they are classed into subject, predicative, object, attributive, adverbial clauses. Actually, there are certain clauses that have no correspondences among the parts of a sentence, for example, some adverbial clauses. Still a general functional similarity between the clauses and parts of a simple sentence does exist and it can be clearly seen from their comparison, e.g.: I was completely frustrated yesterday. – “yesterday” can be substituted by a clause: - I was completely frustrated when they told me about it yesterday. – the clause answers the same question “when?”.

The categorial classification draws a parallel between subordinate clauses and parts of speech. According to the categorial principle subordinate clauses are classed by their nominative properties, that is on their analogy with the part-of- speech classification of notional words. From this point of view all subordinate clauses are divided into 3 categorial groups.

The first group is formed by the substantive-nominal clauses. It includes clauses that name an event as a certain fact. They are also called noun-clauses and are similar to the nominative function of a noun. Their noun-like nature is easily revealed by substitution, e.g.: I thought up what we could do under the circumstances. – The clause can be substituted by “the plan”- I thought up the plan.

The second group of clauses is called qualification-nominal or adjective clauses. They name an event as a certain characteristic of another event. The adjective-like nature of these clauses can also be proved by substitution, e.g. The man whom you saw in the hall was our client. – That man was our client; e.g.: Did you find a room where we could hold a meeting? – Did you find such kind of room?

The third group of clauses can be called adverbial. They name an event as a dynamic characteristic of another event. Adverbial clauses are best tested by transformations, e.g.: They will meet us half way if we follow the agreement.- They will meet us half way on condition that we follow the agreement; e.g.: I could hardly make up any plan, as I did not know the details.- I could hardly make up any plan for the reason that I did not know the details.

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7) Etymological characteristics of the English vocabulary.

Words of native origin. The main characteristics of native words. Groups of words of native origin.

As to the origin English words may be classified into two large sets: native and borrowed words. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English word stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. Native words being only30 percent of the English vocabulary are the most frequently used words as they constitute 80 percent of the 500 most frequent words compiled by Thorndyke and Longe (The Teachers’ Wordbook of 30,000 words. New York, 1959).

Native words comprise Indo-European, Common Germanic and English Proper.

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6. Words denoting landscape features, e.g. sea, land, ground, earth;

7. Words denoting human dwellings and furniture, e.g. house, room, bench;

8. Words denoting sea-going vessels, e.g. boat, ship;

9. Adjectives, e.g. green, blue, grey, white, small, thick, high, old, good;

10. Verbs, e.g. see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink, bake, buy, drive, keep, learn, meet, rise, send, shoot;

11. Words denoting artefacts and materials, e.g. bridge, shop, coal, iron, lead, cloth;

12. Words denoting abstract notions, e.g. care, evil, hope, life, need;

13. Adverbs, e.g. down, out, before;

14. Words denoting articles of clothes, e.g. hat, short, shoe.

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1) Celtic: 5th – 6th c. A.D.;

2) Latin: 1st c. B.C., 7th c. A.D., the Renaissance period – 14th – 16th c.;

3) Scandinavian: 8th – 11th c. A.D.;

4) French: Norman borrowings – 11th – 13th c. A.D., Parisian borrowings – the Renaissance period;

5) Greek: the Renaissance period;

6) Italian: the Renaissance period and later;

7) Spanish: the Renaissance period and later;

8) Russian: the Renaissance period and later;

9) German, Indian and other languages.

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The oldest layer of words in English are those of Indo-European origin, having common roots in all or most languages of Indo-European group. They denote elementary concepts without which no human communication is possible. There are several semantic groups in them :

1. Words denoting kinship, e.g. father (Vater, pater, padre), mother (Mutter, мать), son (Sohn, сын), daughter (Tochter, дочь), brother (Bruder, брат);

2. Words denoting parts of human body, e.g. foot (пядь), nose, lip, heart (сердце),ear, tooth, eye;

3. Words denoting animals, e.g. cow, swine, goose, wolf (Wolf, волк) ;

4. Words denoting plants, e.g. tree, birch (береза), corn (зерно);

5. Words denoting time of day, e.g. day, night;

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English Proper words in contrast to Indo-European and Common Germanic words can be approximately dated, words of this group appeared in the English language not earlier than the 5th century, they are specifically English having no cognates in other languages. Some examples of English Proper words are: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always. The English Proper element also contains all the later formations, i.e. words which were made after the 5th century according to English word-building patterns both from native and borrowed morphemes, e.g. ‘beautiful’ built from the French borrowed root and the native suffix belongs to the English Proper words. It is natural that the number of such words is immense.

Most of the native words have undergone great changes in their semantic structure and as a result are nowadays polysemantic, e.g. the word ‘finger’ denotes not only a part of a hand as in Old English but also 1) the part of a glove covering one of the fingers; 2)a finger-like part in various machines; 3) a hand of a clock; 4) an index; 5) a unit of measurement. Most of words of the native origin are highly polysemantic.

Most native words possess a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency. Many of them enter a number of phraseological units, e.g. the word ‘heel’ enters the following units: ‘heel over head’ or ‘head over heels’; ‘ cool one’s heel’; show a clean pair of

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In the 1st century B.C. the Germanic tribes, that later gave rise to the present-day nation of Englishmen, lived on the territory of Europe, which was occupied by the Roman Empire. So the 1st layer of borrowings represents those from the Latin language. Semantically this group comprises mostly names of foodstuff and fruit and vegetables, e.g. butter (<Lat. butirum), cheese (<Lat. caseus), cherry (<Lat. cerasum), pear (<Lat. pirum), plum (<Lat. prunus), pea (<Lat. pisum), beet (<Lat. beta), pepper (<Lat. piper), cup (<Lat. cuppa), plant ((<Lat. planta), kitchen (<Lat. coquina), mill (<Lat. molina), port (<Lat. portus), wine (<Lat. vinum). The Germanic tribal languages gained a considerable number of new words and were thus enriched.

The 5th century A.D. as several of the Germanic tribes migrated across the English Channel to the British Isles they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. Through their numerous contacts with the Celts, the Anglo-Saxon languages assimilated a number of Celtic words, e.g. Modern English bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle etc. Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were place names, names of rivers, hills etc., e.g. Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux originate from the Celtic words meaning ‘river’ and ‘water’. The name of the English capital originates from Celtic Llyn+dun in which the former is another Celtic word for ‘river’ and the latter stands for ‘a fortified hill’, the meaning of the whole being ‘ a fortress on the hill over the river’.

Besides, during this period some Latin words entered the Anglo-Saxon languages through Celtic, such as street (<Lat. strata

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6. Words denoting heavenly bodies and phenomena of nature, e.g. sun (die Sohne, солнце), moon, star, water (Wasser, вода),wind, wood, hill, stone;

7. Numerals from one to a hundred;

8. Numerous adjectives, e.g. red (cf. Ukr. рудий, R. рыжий),new, glad (гладкий), sad (сыт), quick, slow;

9. Pronouns – personal (except they which is a Scandinavian borrowing) and demonstrative;

10. Numerous verbs, e.g. be (быть), stand (стоять), sit (сидеть), eat (есть), know (знать).

A much larger group of native vocabulary are Common Germanic words (German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic). They represent words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main semantic groups are the same as in words of Indo-European origin:

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heels’; take to one’s heels’; turn on one’s heels’ etc.

Besides, the great stability and semantic peculiarities of native words account for their great derivational potential. Most words of this group make up large clusters of derived and compound words in the present-day language, e.g. the word ‘wood’ is the basis for the formation of the following words: ‘wooden, woody, wooded, woodcraft, woodcutter, woodwork’ and many others.

On the whole, the native element has been playing a significant role in the English language due to the fact that the native words are marked by stability, specific semantic characteristics, wide collocability, great derivational potential, wide spheres of application and high frequency value.

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via), wall (<Lat. vallum).

The 7th century A.D. became significant for Christianization of England. As Latin was the official language of the Christian Church, so the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new wave of Latin borrowings. These loans came mostly from church Latin and indicated in the first place persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals, e.g. priest (<Lat. presbyter), bishop (<Lat. episcopus), monk (<Lat. monachus), nun (<Lat. nonna), candle (<Lat. candela). Besides, the first schools in England being church schools and the first teachers - priests and monks, it is only natural that educational terms were also borrowed from Latin, e.g. school (<Lat. schola<Gr.), scholar (<Lat. scholaris) and magister (<Lat. magister).

From the end of the 8th century to the middle of the 11th century England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which also left their trace on the English vocabulary. Examples of early Scandinavian borrowings are: to call, to cast, to die, to take, law, husband (<Sc. Hus+bondi, i.e. ‘inhabitant of the house’), window (<Sc. Vindauga, i.e. ‘the eye of the wind’), ill, loose, low, weak. Some of the Scandinavian borrowings of this period are easily recognized by the initial sk-combination, e.g. ski, skill, skin, skirt, sky.

Besides some English words changed their meaning under the influence of Scandinavian words of the same root, e.g. the Old

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1. Words denoting parts of human body, e.g. head, hand, arm, finger, bone;

2. Words denoting plants, e.g. oak, fir, grass;

3. Words denoting animals, e.g. bear, fox, calf;

4. Words denoting natural phenomena, e.g. rain, frost, storm, flood, ice;

5. Words denoting periods of time and seasons of the year, e.g. time, week, winter, spring, summer;

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Borrowings. Causes and ways of borrowings. Latin, Scandinavian and French borrowings.

A borrowed word or a borrowing is a word taken over from another language and assimilated in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning, or at least in some of these aspects, according to the standards of the English language. Borrowing words from other languages has been characteristic of English throughout its history. More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings.

Different languages served as sources of borrowing at different periods of the development of the English language due to purely historical causes and facts among which the most important and most influential are: the Roman invasion, the introduction of Christianity, the Danish and Norman conquests, and at present, direct linguistic contacts and political, economical and cultural relationships with other nations. So English during its historical development borrowed words from:

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English bread which meant ‘piece’ got its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian braud, or the Old English dream meaning ‘joy’ adopted the meaning of the Scandinavian draumr, cf. R. дрёма.

In 1066 after the famous battle of Hastings the Norman Conquest began which lasted for about two hundred years and brought many events in national, social, political life as well as lead to numerous borrowings from the Norman dialect of the French language. These borrowings formed various semantic groups penetrating every aspect of social life:

Administrative words: council, government, parliament, power, state;

Legal terms: court, crime, judge, justice, prison;

Military terms: army, battle, enemy, officer, soldier, war;

Educational terms: lesson, library, pen, pencil, pupil, science;

Names for everyday life objects: autumn, dinner, plate, river, saucer, supper, table, uncle;

Names of foodstuff: veal, beef, pork etc.

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The Renaissance period in England as elsewhere was marked by significant interest in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome. Science, art and culture were developing, hence a considerable number of Greek and Latin borrowings in these strata of the language, and these are mostly abstract words and numerous scientific and artistic terms, e.g. to create, to elect, intelligent, filial, major, minor, moderate, permanent, datum, method, music, phenomenon, philosophy, status <Latin; atom, cycle, ethics, aesthetic <Greek.

French borrowings of this period happened to be from the Parisian dialect, e.g. ballet, bourgeois, machine, matinee, police, regime, routine, scene, technique etc.

Italian also gave a large number of words to the English language, e.g. alarm, bankrupt, bulletin, colonel, dilettante, fascist, fiasco, gazette, graffiti, manifesto, piano, opera, violin etc.

Not only words as a whole were borrowed by the language. As soon as a borrowing was not felt in the language as something alien and there accumulated enough words of similar structural patterns, their constituent morphemes both roots and affixes began their independent life in producing new words, thus there appeared in the English language hybrid words, i.e. words consisting of a native root and foreign affixes or vice versa, e.g. eatable=native root+ Latin suffix; lovable=native root+ Latin suffix; dentist= Latin root+ Greek suffix; schoolboy= Greek root+ English root etc.

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Causes and Ways of Borrowing. As it has already been stated above the causes of borrowing are historic and linguistic factors. While historical causes of borrowing from different languages have been studied with a considerable degree of thoroughness and briefly outlined in the present study, the purely linguistic reasons for borrowing are still open to investigation. The number and character of borrowings do not only depend on the historical conditions, on the nature and length of contacts, but also on the degree

of the genetic and structural proximity of languages concerned. The closer the languages, the deeper and more versatile is the influence. This largely accounts for the well-marked contrast between the French and the Scandinavian influence on the English language. Thus under the influence of the Scandinavian languages which were closely related to Old English some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages, e.g. pronouns they, their, them; a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native words as they were from the same root and the connection between them was easily seen, e.g. drop(Anglo-Saxon) – drip (Scand.), true (Anglo-Saxon) – tryst (Scand.); the Scandinavian influence even accelerated to some degree the development of the grammatical structure of English.

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To distinguish a borrowing in the English language let us enumerate some of the derivational affixes of Latin and French origin.

Latin affixes: -ion, -tion, -ate, -ute, -ct, -d(e), dis-, -able, -ant, -ent, -or, -al, -ar in the words like session, relation, create, attribute, conduct, applaud, disable, curable, accurate, constant, absent, major, cordial, solar etc.

French affixes: -ance, -ence, -ment, -age, -ess, -ous, en- in the words like endurance, patience, government, village, actress, serious, enable etc.

Spanish borrowings of the earlier period are mostly names of fruit and vegetables, recent groups of these are either trade terms or names of dances and musical instruments, e.g. apricot, banana, cocoa, potato, tomato, tobacco, cargo, embargo, tango, rumba, habanera, guitar etc.

Alongside borrowings proper, translation and semantic borrowings can be distinguished. Translation borrowings, or translation loans, are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language but according to the patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme translation, e.g. wall newspaper <R. стенгазета, lightning war<Germ. Blitzkrieg, masterpiece <Germ. Meisterstuck, wonder child<Germ. Wunderkind, first dancer <Ital. prima ballerina, collective farm< Rus. колхоз.

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Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech and through written speech. Oral borrowing took place in the early periods of history, whereas in recent times written borrowings have gained importance. Words borrowed orally are usually short and they have undergone considerable phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes, e.g. Latin< inch, mill, street. Written borrowings preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound form as their assimilation is a long process, e.g. French< communiqué, belles-lettres, naïveté.

Assimilation of borrowings. Types of assimilation.

The term 'assimilation of borrowings' is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the English language and its semantic system.

According to the degree of assimilation all borrowed words can be divided into three groups:

1) completely assimilated borrowings;

2) partially assimilated borrowings;

3) unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms.

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Semantic borrowing is the development in an English word of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another language, e.g. the English word ‘pioneer’ meant ‘explorer’ and ‘one who is among the first in new fields of activity’, but under the influence of the Russian word’пионер’ it has come to mean ‘a member of the Young Pioneers’ League’.

Due to the process of borrowing the English word stock was replenished by international words, i.e. words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowing from one ultimate source, e.g. antenna, music, radio. International words play an especially important role in different terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. Due to the accelerated rate of development of science and technology such international words enriched the English language as algorithm, antibiotics, automation, bionics, gene, cyborg etc. The origin of some international words reflects the history of world culture, the mankind’s debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of words connected with architecture, painting and especially music, e.g. allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone, concert, duet, opera, piano etc.

We find numerous English words in the sphere of sport, e.g. football, out, match, tennis, time out, ring, referee, set etc. There are English international words referring to clothing, e.g. jersey, pullover, sweater, tweed, shorts, leggings etc.

International words must not be confused with other words which ultimately come from the same source but have diverged in meaning. Such words are called ‘false friends’, or ‘false cognates’, cf. accurate and аккуратный, conserves and консервы.

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1. Completely assimilated borrowed words follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards. They take an active part in word-formation. The morphological structure and motivation of completely assimilated borrowings remain usually transparent, so that they are morphologically analyzable and therefore supply the English vocabulary not only with free forms but also with bound forms, as affixes are easily perceived and separated in series of borrowed words that contain them (e.g. the French suffixes -age, -ance and -ment).

Borrowings proper are words taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.

Completely assimilated words are found in all the layers of older borrowings, e.g. cheese (the word of the first layer of Latin borrowings), husband (Scand), face (Fr), animal (the Latin word borrowed during the revival of learning).

It is important to mention that a loan word never brings into the receiving language the whole of its semantic structure if it is polysemantic in the original language. And even the borrowed variants may change and become specialized in the new system. For example, the word sport had a much wider scope in Old French denoting pleasures, making merry and entertainments in general. Being borrowed into Middle English in this character it gradually acquired the meaning of outdoor games and exercise.

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8) English word structure.

Morphemes and their definition.

Viewed structurally words appear to be divisible into smaller units which are called morphemes. Morphemes do not occur as free forms but only as constituents of words. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. Morphemes cannot be segmented into smaller units without losing their constitutive essence, i.e. association of a certain meaning with a certain sound pattern. Morphemes can have different phonetic shapes, e.g. in such words as ‘please, pleasure, pleasant’ the same morpheme ‘pleas-‘ has different phonetic shapes and these various representations of the morpheme are called allomorphs, or morphemic variants.

Classification of morphemes (semantic and structural). Free and bound morphemes.

Structurally morphemes fall into three types: 1) free morphemes; 2) bound morphemes; 3) semi-bound, or semi-free, morphemes.

Free morphemes are those that coincide with the stem or a word-form. For example, the root-morpheme youth- of the adjective youthful is a free morpheme as it coincides with one of the forms of the word youth.

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A bound morpheme occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are bound morphemes for they always make part of a word, e.g. the suffixes –ment, -ness in the words government, kindness, or the prefixes un-, il- in the words unreal, illegal.

Some root morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes. They are as a rule roots which can be found in a small number of words such as goose- in gooseberry or –ceive in conceive, or for example, the word telephone consists of two bound roots of Greek origin – tele- and –phone.

Semi-bound morphemes can function in a morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a free morpheme, e.g. the morphemes well, half, proof are free morphemes coinciding with the stem and the word-form in the word utterances to sing well, half a loaf, the proof of the pudding, on the other hand they occur as bound morphemes in the words well-educated, half-known, waterproof.

Semantically all morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots, or radicals, and affixes. The latter in their turn fall into prefixes, which precede the root in the structure of the word, and suffixes, which follow the root, e.g. dis-advantage, re-write, teach-er , cur-able etc.

Types of words: simple, derived, compound and compound-derived.

According to the number of morphemes words are classified into monomorphic and polymorphic ones. Monomorphic, or root-words, consist only of one root-morpheme (little, doll, baby, make).

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Root words mostly belong to the original English stock or to earlier borrowings, such as house, room, book, work, port, street, pen. Modern English has been greatly enlarged by the type of word-building called conversion, e.g. to hand< a hand, to can< a can, to pale < pale (adj.), a go< to go etc.

Polymorphic words according to the number of root-morphemes are classified into a) monoradical, containing one root-morpheme and b) polyradical, consisting of two or more roots.

Monoradical words fall into:

1) radical-suffixal words, such as acceptable, acceptability;

2) radical-prefixal words, such as unbutton, reread;

3) prefixo-radical-suffixal words, such as disagreeable, misinterpretation.

Words which consist of a root and an affix (or several affixes) are called derived words, or derivatives, and are produced by the process of word-building known as affixation or derivation.

Derived words are numerous in the English language successfully competing with root words.

Polyradical words fall into:

1) polyradical words consisting of two or more roots with no affixational morphemes, such as bookstall, lampshade;

2) polyradical words containing at least two roots and one or more affixational morphemes, such as safety-pin, handwriting.

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This wide-spread word structure is a compound word consisting of two or more stems, i.e. part of the word formed by a root and an affix /affixes. In English words roots and stems can often coincide, e.g. dining-room, bluebell, mother-in-law etc. words of this type are produced by the word-building process called composition.

Such words as ‘pram, flu, doc, M.P., H-bomb’ are called shortenings, contractions or curtailed words and are produced by the way of word-building called shortening, or contraction.

Root-words, derivatives, compounds and shortenings represent the main structural types of modern English words and conversion, derivation and composition are the most productive ways of word-building.

Classification of compounds.

According to the relations between the ICs compound words fall into two classes: 1) coordinative compounds and 2) subordinative compounds.

In coordinative compounds the two ICs are semantically equally important. There are three groups in coordinative compounds:

a) reduplicative compounds which are made up by the repetition of the same base, e.g. pooh-pooh, fifty-fifty;

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b) compounds formed by joining the phonetically variated rhythmic twin forms, e.g. chit-chat, zig-zag, walkie-talkie, dilly-dally, riff-raff, ping-pong;

c) additive compounds which are built on stems of the independently functioning words of the same part of speech, e.g. actor-manager, queen-bee.

In subordinative compounds the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of the head member which is as a rule the second IC, e.g. stone-deaf, age-long. The second IC preconditions the part-of-speech meaning of the whole compound.

According to the part of speech compounds represent, they fall into: 1) compound nouns, e.g. sunrise, housemaid; 2) compound adjectives, e.g. care-free, far-going; 3) compound pronouns, e.g. somebody, anybody; 4) compound adverbs, e.g. nowhere, inside; 5) compound verbs, e.g. to bypass, to mass-produce.

From the diachronic point of view many compound verbs of the present-day language are treated not as compounds proper but as polymorphic verbs of secondary derivation. They are called pseudo-compounds and are represented by two groups: a) verbs formed by means of conversion from the stems of compound nouns, e.g. to spotlight (>spotlight, n.); b) verbs formed by back-derivation from the stems of compound nouns, e.g. to babysit (>baby-sitter).

However synchronically compound verbs correspond to the definition of a compound as a word consisting of two free stems and functioning in the sentence as a separate lexical unit.

According to the means of composition compound words are classified into: 1) compounds composed without connecting

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elements, e.g. backache, school girl; 2) compounds composed with the help of a linking vowel or consonant, e.g. salesgirl, handicraft; 3) compounds composed with the help of linking elements represented by preposition or conjunction stems, e.g. son-in-law, pepper-and-salt.

According to the type of bases that form compounds two classes can be singled out: 1) compounds proper that are formed by joining together bases built on the stems or on the word-forms with or without a linking element, e.g. door-step, street-fighting; 2) derivational compounds that are formed by joining affixes to the bases built on the word-groups or by converting the bases built on the word-groups into other parts of speech, e.g. blue-eyed < (blue eyes) + -ed, a turnkey< (to turn key) + conversion. Thus derivational compounds fall into two groups: a) derivational compounds mainly formed with the help of suffixes –ed and –er

applied to bases built on attributive phrases, e.g. doll-faced, left-hander; b) derivational compounds formed by conversion applied to bases built on three types of phrases – verbal-adverbial (a breakdown), verbal-nominal (a kill-joy) and attributive (a sweet-tooth).

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