Practical Task: a. Match these words silly, marshal, fond, knight, nice, villain with their appropriate meanings and comment on their development.

1. foolish; loving, affectionate-fond=elevation

2. foolish; fine, good-nice=elevation

3. happy; foolish-silly-degradation

4. manservant; noble, courageous man-knight=elevation

5. manservant attending horses; the highest rank in the army-marshall-elevation

6. farm servant; vile person-villain=specialisation

B. Explain the basis for the following jokes and the meaning of the italicized words.

1. C.: I wonder if I can see your mother, little boy. Is she engaged? (занятой)

W.: Engaged! She’s married.

B.C.(at a small village station): You’ll have to change (to change train)twice before you get to

York.

V. (unused to travelling): Goodness me! And I’ve only brought the clothes I’m

wearing.

2 . Professor: You missed (skip) my class yesterday, didn’t you?

Student: Not in the least , sir, not in the least.

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1.Change of meaning. Types of semantic change. Causes & results of semantic change ( metaphor, metonymy, euphemism, meanings).

Types of semantic change. A number of classification schemes have been suggested for semantic change. The most widely accepted scheme in the English-speaking academic world is from Bloomfield (1933): Narrowing: Change from superordinate level to subordinate level. For example, skyline used to refer to any horizon, but now it has narrowed to a horizon decorated by skyscrapers.Widening: Change from subordinate level to superordinate level. There are many examples of specific brand names being used for the general product, such as with Kleenex. Metaphor: Change based on similarity of thing. For example, broadcast originally meant "to cast seeds out"; with the advent of radio and television, the word was extended to indicate the transmission of audio and video signals. Outside of agricultural circles, very few people use broadcast in the earlier sense. Metonymy: Change based on nearness in space or time, e.g., jaw "cheek" → "jaw". Synecdoche: Change based on whole-part relation. The convention of using capital cities to represent countries or their governments is an example of this. Litotes: Change from stronger to weaker meaning, e.g., astound "strike with thunder" → "surprise strongly". Hyperbole: Change from weaker to stronger meaning, e.g., kill "torment" → "kill". Degeneration: e.g., knave "boy" → "servant" → "deceitful or despicable man". Elevation: e.g., knight "boy" → "knight". Amelioration – change of meaning in a better way. E.g. nice (ignorant, unaware, foolish in O.E. – pretty, good in Modern E), knight ( servant in OE – a noble soldier), success (result – a favorable result). Pejoration – change of meaning in worse way. E.g. villain (pleasant in OE – criminal), notorious (widely known – known for sth bad).

METAPHOR - It is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison. Herman Paul points out that metaphor can be based on different types of similarity: a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a comb); b) similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a procession); c) similarity of function, behaviour e.g. a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the voting); d) similarity of colour, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut etc. In some cases we have a complex similarity, e.g. the leg of a table has a similarity to a human leg in its shape, position and function. Many metaphors are based on parts of a human body, e.g. an eye of a needle, arms and mouth of a river, head of an army. A special type of metaphor is when Proper names become common nouns, e.g. philistine - a mercenary person, vandals - destructive people, a Don Juan - a lover of many women etc. METONYMY - It is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of metonymy: a) the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object , e.g. a glass, boards, iron etc; b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House - members of Parliament, Fleet Street - bourgeois press, the White House - the Administration of the USA etc; c) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. the violin, the saxophone; d) the name of some person may becom a common noun, e.g. "boycott" was originally the name of an Irish family who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they did not mix with them, "sandwich" was named after Lord Sandwich who was a gambler. He did not want to interrupt his game and had his food brought to him while he was playing cards between two slices of bread not to soil his fingers. e) names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented, e.g. "watt" , "om", "rentgen" etc f) some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a special kind of carpets) , china (porcelain) , astrachan ( a sheep fur) etc.

Euphemism (Gr euphemismos from eu 'well' and pheme 'speak') is the substitution of words of mild or vague connotations for expressions rough, unpleasant or for some other reasons unmentionable.

Within the diachronic approach the phenomenon has been repeatedly classed by many linguists as taboo. This standpoint is hardly accep­table for modern European languages. With primitive peoples taboo is a prohibition meant as a safeguard against supernatural forces. Names of ritual objects or animals were taboo because the name was regarded as the equivalent of what was named. S. Ullmann returns to the conception - of taboo several times illustrating it with propitiatory names given in the early periods of language development to such objects of supersti­tious fear as the bear (whose name originally meant 'brown') and the weasel. He treats both examples as material of comparative semantics. The taboo influence behind the circumlocutions used to name these anim­als becomes quite obvious when the same phenomenon is observed in similar names in various other languages. There is no necessity to cite them here as they are given in any book on general linguistics. It should be borne in mind that taboo has historical relevance. No such opposition as that between a direct and a propitiatory name for an animal, no matter how dangerous, can be found in present-day English.

With peoples of developed culture, euphemism is intrinsically differ­ent, has nothing to do with taboo and is dictated by social usage, moral tact and etiquette. Cf. queer 'mad', deceased 'dead', perspire v 'sweat'.

From the semantical point of view euphemism is important because meanings with unpleasant connotations appear in words formerly neutral, as a result of their repeated use instead of other words that are for some reason unmentionable.

Semantic change, also known as semantic shift or semantic progression describes the evolution of word usage — usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the original usage. In diachronic (or historical) linguistics, semantic change is a change in one of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and connotations which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings. Semantic change is one of three major processes to find a designation for a concept. The study of semantic change can be seen as part of etymology, onomasiology, semasiology and semantics.

Examples

Demagogue - Originally meant "a popular leader". It is from the Greek demagogos (leader of the people), from demos (people) + agogos (leader). Now the word has strong connotations of a politician who panders to emotions and prejudice.

Democrat - At the time of the American Revolution, the term "democrat" had all the negative connotations of the modern usage of the word "demagogue". A century later, the term had shifted in meaning enough that it was viewed favorably as the name of an American national political party.

Egregious [I’gri:d3iәs]- Originally described something that was remarkably good. The word is from the Latin egregius (outstanding) which is from e-, ex- (out of) + greg- or grex (flock). Now it means something that is remarkably bad or flagrant.

Guy - Guido (Guy) Fawkes was the alleged leader of a plot to blow up the English Houses of Parliament on 5 November 1605. The burning on 5 November of a grotesque effigy of Fawkes, known as a "guy," led to the use of the word "guy" as a term for any "person of grotesque appearance" and then to a general reference for a man, as in "some guy called for you." In the 20th century, under the influence of American popular culture, "guy" has been gradually replacing "fellow," "bloke," "chap" and other such words throughout the English-speaking world, and, in the plural, can refer to a mixture of genders (e.g., "Come on, you guys!" could be directed to a group of men and women).

Gay - Originally meant feelings of being "carefree", "happy", or "bright and showy"; it had also come to acquire some connotations of "immorality" as early as 1637. The term later began to be used in reference to homosexuality, in particular, from the early 20th century, a usage that may have dated prior to the 19th century.

Common types of metaphor

А)A dead metaphor is one in which the sense of the transferred image is absent. Examples: "to grasp a concept" and "to gather what you've understood" use physical action as a metaphor for understanding, most do not visualize the action; dead metaphors normally go unnoticed. Some people distinguish between a "dead metaphor" whose origin most speakers ignore, e.g. "to break the ice". Others use dead metaphor to denote both concepts, and generally use it to describe a metaphoric cliché.

В)An extended metaphor (conceit), establishes a principal subject (comparison) and subsidiary subjects (comparisons). The As You Like It quotation is a good example, the world is described as a stage, and then men and women are subsidiary subjects further described in the same context.

С)A mixed metaphor is one that leaps from one identification to a second identification inconsistent with the first. Example: "If we can hit that bullseye then the rest of the dominoes will fall like a house of cards... Checkmate."Quote from Futurama TV show character Zapp Brannigan,

Per Hans Blumenberg’s metaphorology, absolute metaphor denotes a figure or a concept that cannot be reduced to, or replaced with solely conceptual thought and language. Absolute metaphors, e.g. “light” (for “truth”) and “seafaring” (for “human existence”) –Metonymy: Change based on contiguity between concepts, e.g., horn "animal horn" → "musical instrument".

Ex.: He drinks 2 cups (tea, coffee) every morning.

He has eaten 2 plates (porridge) today.

I read Balzak.

Chairman, crown, volt, amper.

Task . Find cases of metaphor and metonymy in the following sentences and comment on them.

1. I have never read Balzac in the original. =metonymy

2. I had a new pride of my rooms after his approval of them, and burned with a desire to develop their utmost resources.=dead metaphor

3. My sister is fond of old china(porcelain-farfor).=metonymy

4. The coffee-pot is boiling.=metonymy

5. Every time I see him , my heart sinks=dead metaphor.

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1.Common and distinctive features of free word groups and set expressions. Principles of classification of phraseological units. A word-combination (word-group) is a combination of two or more words organize according to the norms of the language. There are three types of word-groups: 1) free 2) set expressions 3) phraseological units. They are diff. structurally and semantically. Free word combinations are structurally and semantically unstable. EG: a good man; a good and reliable man; a better man. Fixed combinations of words or set expressions are structurally and semantic stable and the meaning is understood from the meanings of the components. That means there is no transference of meaning of this combinations. EG: a man of business; a man of letters (писатель) Phrasiological units are structurally and semantically stable and they have transferred meaning. EG: a man of the wheel (руководитель) Free word combinations may be described from the following points of view: 1) In terms of conceptual combinability word groups are extra-linguistically determined. If objects are related the words denoting these things are also connective. We can say: tasty dish, tasty cake, but we can’t say tasty lexicology. 2) In terms of social-linguistic combinability, word groups are determined by customs and traditional way of life and other cultural factors of the language community. EG: “white” in our country, it is a color, which has a festive meaning – bride’s dress in India it’s a color of mourning 3) In terms of inner linguistic combinability, this group can be deviated and non-deviated EG: red flower – красный цветок, red tape – волокита. The first is not-deviated, the meaning is clear from the meaning of compounds. The second is non-deviated

Phrasiological units are structurally and semantically stable and they have transferred meaning. EG: a man of the wheel (руководитель). In phrasiological units, words loose their semantic independents and phraseological units are not created in speech. They exist in the system of the lang., they are ready to be used in speech. Words can’t be replaced or changed in a phraseological unit according to our wish. So, a phraseological unit may be defined as a stable word combination with a completely or partially transferred meaning.

Principles of classification of phraseological units and their origin.

There are several classification of phraseological units. One of them was worked out by Vinogradov. This classification is based on the semantic principle that is on the degree of the semantic cohesion of the elements. There are three groups in his classification: 1) Phraseological combination (сочетания) They are very close to free word combinations as they have one of the words used in its direct meaning. EG: to break a promise – нарушить обещание “to break” is used in transferred meaning, “promise” is used in direct meaning. This word combination are motivated, there combinability is limited. EG: we can say in English: to set smb free – освободить кого-либо, but we can’t say: to set smb. at freedom – выпустить на свободу. 2) Phraseological Unities EG: to skate of thin ice – рисковать; to sit on the fence – выжидать; a big bug – важная шишка. In such phrasiological unitie the meaning of the whole is not the sum of the direct manings of the components, but it is the meaning, that understood from the transformed (change) meaning of the compounents. The metaphor is clear. 3) Fusions (сращения) EG: to be at sixes and sevens – быть в беспорядке, в разбросе; a fish story – выдумка. Such phraseological units have completely transferd meaning. They are not motivated and the metaphor on which the changed of meaning is waste is not clear. EG: there was a time when sum of the fusion were motivated; to cut off with a shilling – лишить наследства.

The common feature of such phrasiological units is that they can be easily translated from one language to another. EG: a wolf in sheep closing - волк в овечьей шкуре. Such units are called international phrasiological units. As for national ones they are not easily translated into another language. They are translated as a rule by a free word combination. EG: RUS>ENG: филькина грамота – a useless sheet of paper; глухая тетеря – a deaf  person ENG>RUS: rank and file – рядовой человек; in a trice – очень быстро

Set expressions are word groups consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated so that they are introduced in speech, so to say, ready-made as units with a specialised meaning of the whole that is not understood as a mere sum total of the meanings of the elements.

CLICHÉ. A cliché is a saying, expression, idea, or element of an artistic work which has been overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect rendering it a stereotype, especially when at some earlier time it was considered meaningful or novel. A cliché may sometimes be used in a work of fiction for comedic effect. A cliché is a hackneyed phrase or expression. The phrase may once have been fresh or striking, but it has become tired through over-use.

Examples:

To brake the ice

The irony of fate

Swan song

To sleep the sleep of the just

A proverb, (from the Latin proverbium), is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of humanity. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good phrasing, it may be known as an aphorism.

East or West - home is best. В гостях хорошо, а дома лучше.

Every man to his taste. На вкус и цвет - товарища нет.

Evil communications corrupt good manners. С кем поведешься, от того и наберешься.

Give him an inch and he'll take an ell. Дай ему палец, он и всю руку откусит.

An epigram is a brief, clever, and usually memorable statement. Derived from the Greek (epi-gramma) "to write on - inscribe", the literary device has been employed for over two millennia.

The examples of poetic epigrams:

1) Little strokes

Fell great oaks. (Benjamin Franklin)

2) Here lies my wife: here let her lie!

Now she's at rest — and so am I. (John Dryden)

A quotation is the repetition of one expression as part of another one, particularly when the quoted expression is well-known or explicitly attributed (as by citation) to its original source, and it is indicated by (punctuated with) quotation marks. A quotation can also refer to the repeated use of units of any other form of expression, especially parts of artistic works: elements of a painting, scenes from a movie or sections from a musical composition.

A little learning is a dangerous

Thy name is woman.

"The causes of events are always more important than the events themselves." Cicero

"Причины событий всегда являются более важными, чем сами события". Цицерон

An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to, or representation of, a place, event, literary work, myth, or work of art, either directly or by implication. M.H. Abrams defined allusion as "a brief reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place or event, or to another literary work or passage".

Examples of allusions:

All roads lead to Rome.

Все дороги ведут в Рим.

Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) nominal phrases or noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person or a living being:

Bullet train;

The root of the trouble.

b) verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling:

To sing like a lark;

To put one’s best foot forward.

c) adjectival phrases or adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality:

As good as gold;

Red as a cherry.

d) adverbial phrases or adverb phraseological units, such as:

From head to foot;

Like a dog with two tails.

e) prepositional phrases or preposition phraseological units:

In the course of;

On the stroke of.

f) conjunctional phrases or conjunction phraseological units:

As long as;

On the other hand.

g) interjectional phrases or interjection phraseological units:

Catch me!;

Well, I never!

Task :Complete the following sentences with the appropriate phraseological units from the list below and comment on their structure and meaning.

1. If I pay my rent, I won’t have any money to buy food. I’m between _the devil and the deep sea.(a nominal phrase or noun phraseologisms, denoting an object, a person or a living being acc.to Arnold)

2. It’s no use grumbling about your problems we’re all in the same boat.( prepositional phrases or preposition phraseological units)

3. He’s sold his house and his business to go to Australia, so he’s really burnt his boats. (verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling:)

4. She prefers not to rely on anyone else, she likes to paddle her own canoe. (verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling:)

5. They didn’t know whether to get married or not, but they finally took a plunge. . (verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling:)

6. You can’t expect everything to go right all the time, you must learn to take the rough with the smooth . (verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling:)

7. She was so embarrassed that she went as red as a beetroot. (adjectival phrases or adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality)

8. Please button ur lip so that we can hear what the speaker is saying. (verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling:)

9. The postman always calls at 8 o’clock, he’s as regular as clockwork(adjectival phrases or adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality)

10. This handwriting is so bad I can’t make out what it says. (verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling:)

(make out; to take the rough with the smooth; as red as a beetroot; between the devil and the deep sea; to take the plunge; in the same boat; to paddle one’s own canoe; to burn one’s boats; button your lip; clockwork)

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