- •44.1. Introduction
- •44.2. Acquired brain injury
- •44.2.1. Epidemiology of Brain Injury
- •44.2.2. The Essence of Brain Injury
- •44.3. Demands of neurorehabilitation
- •44.4. Brief history of cn-ninm technology
- •44.4.1. Sensory Substitution
- •44.4.2. Why the Tongue? Part I
- •44.4.3. Evolution of the PoNs Device
- •44.4.3.1. Vision Substitution via the Tongue
- •Figure 44.1
- •44.4.3.2. Vestibular Sensory Substitution Systems
- •44.4.4. Retention Effects
- •44.4.4.1. Short-Term Aftereffect
- •44.4.4.2. Long-Term Aftereffect
- •44.4.4.3. Rehabilitation Effect
- •Figure 44.2
- •44.5. Conceptual framework
- •44.6. Technical description of the PoNs device
- •44.6.1. Purposeful Neurostimulation
- •44.6.2. Electrotactile Stimulation
- •44.6.3. PoNs Device
- •44.6.3.1. Physical Construction
- •44.6.3.2. Electrical Stimulation
- •Figure 44.3
- •44.6.3.3. Electrode Array and Pulse Sequencing
- •44.7. How it works
- •44.7.1. Why the Tongue? Part II
- •44.7.2. Hypothesis
- •Table 44.1
- •Figure 44.4
- •44.8.1. Movement Training
- •Figure 44.8
- •44.8.2. Balance Training
- •44.8.2.1. Training Positions
- •Table 44.2
- •Table 44.3
- •44.8.2.2. Performing Balance Training
- •44.8.3. Gait Training
- •Table 44.4
- •44.8.4. Cognitive Training
- •44.8.6. Continued Research
- •Figure 44.5
- •44.9.1.1.2. Single tbi Subject Electromyelogram Results
- •Figure 44.6
- •44.9.1.1.3. Stroke Subject dgi Results
- •Figure 44.7
- •44.9.2. Balance
- •Figure 44.9
- •44.9.3. Cognitive Functions
- •Table 44.5
- •Table 44.6
- •44.9.4. Eye Movement
- •Figure 44.10
- •Figure 44.11
- •44.10. Conclusion
- •References
References
Abraham W.C, Bear M.F. Metaplasticity: The plasticity of synaptic plasticity. Trends Neurosci. 1996;19:126–130. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P. Late postacute neurologic rehabilitation: Neuroscience, engineering, and clinical programs. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003a;84:1100–1108. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P. Theoretical basis for brain plasticity after a TBI. Brain Inj. 2003b;17:643–651. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P. Theoretical and practical considerations in the restoration of function after stroke. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2001;8:1–15. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P. Brain plasticity as a basis for recovery of function in humans. Neuropsychologia. 1990;28:547–554. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P. Tactile vision substitution: Past and future. Int J Neurosci. 1983;19:29–36. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P. Brain Mechanisms in Sensory Substitution. Academic Press; New York: 1972.
Bach-y-Rita P, Collins C.C, Saunders F.A, White B, Scadden L. Vision substitution by tactile image projection. Nature. 1969a;221:963–964. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P, Collins C.C, White B, Saunders F.A, Scadden L, Blomberg R. A tactile vision substitution system. Am J Optom Arch Am Acad Optom. 1969b;46:109–111. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P, Kaczmarek K.A. Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; Madison, WI: 2002. Tongue placed tactile output device, from http://www.warf.org/technologies/medical-devices/adaptive-design/summary/tongue-placed-tactile-output-device-p98100us.cmsx.
Bach-y-Rita P, Kaczmarek K.A, Tyler M.E, Garcia-Lara J. Form perception with a 49-point electrotactile stimulus array on the tongue: A technical note. J Rehabil Res Dev. 1998;35:427–430. [PubMed]
Bach-y-Rita P, W.K. S. Sensory substitution and the human-machine interface. Trends Cogn Sci. 2003;7:541–546. [PubMed]
Bach Y.R.P. Is it possible to restore function with two percent surviving neural tissue? J Integr Neurosci. 2004;3:3–6. [PubMed]
Bach Y.R.P. Emerging concepts of brain function. J Integr Neurosci. 2005;4:183–205. [PubMed]
Badke M.B, Sherman J, Boyne P, Page S, Dunning K. Tongue-based biofeedback for balance in stroke: Results of an 8-week pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2011;92:1364–1370. [PubMed]
Baker R.S, Epstein A.D. Ocular motor abnormalities from head trauma. Surv Ophthalmol. 1991;35:245–267. [PubMed]
Barros C.G, Bittar R.S, Danilov Y. Effects of electrotactile vestibular substitution on rehabilitation of patients with bilateral vestibular loss. Neurosci Lett. 2010;476:123–126. [PubMed]
Barroso-Chinea P, Bezard E. Basal ganglia circuits underlying the pathophysiology of levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Front Neuroanatomy. 2010:4. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Baugh C.M, Stamm J.M, Riley D.O, Gavett B.E, Shenton M.E, Lin A. et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: Neurodegeneration following repetitive concussive and subconcussive brain trauma. Brain Imaging Behav. 2012;6:244–254. [PubMed]
Bear M.F, Malenka R.C. Synaptic plasticity: LTP and LTD. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1994;4:389–399. [PubMed]
Bédard M.-A. Mental and Behavioral Dysfunction in Movement Disorders. Humana Press; Totowa NJ: 2003.
Bi G.Q, Bolshakov V, Bu G, Cahill C.M, Chen Z.F, Collingridge G.L. et al. Recent advances in basic neurosciences and brain disease: From synapses to behavior. Molecul Pain. 2006;2:38. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Binder S, Corrigan J.D, Langlois J.A. The public health approach to traumatic brain injury: An overview of CDC’s research and programs. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2005;20:189–195. [PubMed]
Bittar R.S, Barros Cde G. Vestibular rehabilitation with biofeedback in patients with central imbalance. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;77:356–361. [PubMed]
Bliss T.V, Gardner-Medwin A.R. Long-lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate area of the unanaestetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path. J Physiol. 1973;232:357–374. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Bliss T.V, Lomo T. Long-lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate area of the anaesthetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path. J Physiol. 1973;232:331–356. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Boringa J, Lazeron R, Reuling I, Adèr H, Pfennings L, Lindeboom J. et al. The brief repeatable battery of neuropsychological tests: Normative values allow application in multiple sclerosis clinical practice. Mult Scler. 2001;7:263–267. [PubMed]
Borisoff J.F, Elliott S.L, Hocaloski S, Birch G.E. The development of a sensory substitution system for the sexual rehabilitation of men with chronic spinal cord injury. J Sex Med. 2010;7:3647–3658. [PubMed]
Buchs P.A, Muller D. Induction of long-term potentiation is associated with major ultrastructural changes of activated synapses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996;93:8040–8045. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Calverley R.K, Jones D.G. Contributions of dendritic spines and perforated synapses to synaptic plasticity. Brain Res. 1990;15:215–249. [PubMed]
Chebat D.R, Rainville C, Kupers R, Ptito M. Tactile-’visual’ acuity of the tongue in early blind individuals. Neuroreport. 2007;18:1901–1904. [PubMed]
Chebat D.R, Schneider F.C, Kupers R, Ptito M. Navigation with a sensory substitution device in congenitally blind individuals. Neuroreport. 2011;22:342–347. [PubMed]
Chen Y.H, Kang J.H, Lin H.C. Patients with traumatic brain injury: Population-based study suggests increased risk of stroke. Stroke. 2011;42:2733–2739. [PubMed]
Cicerone K.D, Dahlberg C, Kalmar K, Langenbahn D.M, Malec J.F, Bergquist T.F. et al. Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: Recommendations for clinical practice. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;81:1596–1615. [PubMed]
Cifu D.X, Huang M.E, Kolakowsky-Hayner S.A, Seel R.T. Age, outcome, and rehabilitation costs after paraplegia caused by traumatic injury of the thoracic spinal cord, conus medullaris, and cauda equina. J Neurotrauma. 1999;16:805–815. [PubMed]
Collins C.C, Madey J.M.J. Tactile sensory replacement. Proc San Diego Biomed Symp. 1974;13:15–26.
Coronado V.G, Thomas K.E, Sattin R.W, Johnson R.L. The CDC traumatic brain injury surveillance system: Characteristics of persons aged 65 years and older hospitalized with a TBI. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2005;20:215–228. [PubMed]
Coronado V.G, Xu L, Basavaraju S.V, McGuire L.C, Wald M.M. et al. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance for traumatic brain injury-related deaths—United States, 1997–2007. MMWR. 2011;60:1–32. [PubMed]
Corso P, Finkelstein E, Miller T, Fiebelkorn I, Zaloshnja E. Incidence and lifetime costs of injuries in the United States. Inj Prevent. 2006;12:212–218. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
D’Angelo E. Neural circuits of the cerebellum: Hypothesis for function. J Integ Neurosci. 2011;10:317–352. [PubMed]
Danilov YP T.M, Bach-Y-Rita P. Vestibular substitution for postural control. In: Lofaso F R.J.-F, Roby-Brami A, editors. Innovations Technologiques et Handicap: Actes des 17e[s] Entretiens de l’Institut Garches. Vol. 17. Frison-Roche; Paris, France: 2004. pp. 216–224. In.
Danilov Y.P, Tyler M.E, Skinner K.L, Bach-y-Rita P. Efficacy of electrotactile vestibular substitution in patients with bilateral vestibular and central balance loss. Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc Suppl. 2006;6605:6609. [PubMed]
Danilov Y.P, Tyler M.E, Skinner K.L, Hogle R.A, Bach-y-Rita P. Efficacy of electrotactile vestibular substitution in patients with peripheral and central vestibular loss. J Vestib Res. 2007;17:119–130. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
DeKosky S.T, Ikonomovic M.D, Gandy S. Traumatic brain injury: Football, warfare, and long-term effects. Minn Medic. 2010;93:46–47. [PubMed]
Doidge N. The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science. Viking; New York: 2007.
Dudek S.M, Bear M.F. Bidirectional long-term modification of synaptic effectiveness in the adult and immature hippocampus. J Neurosci. 1993;13:2910–2918. [PubMed]
Engert F, Bonhoeffer T. Dendritic spine changes associated with hippocampal long-term synaptic plasticity. Nature. 1999;399:66–70. [PubMed]
Gavett B.E, Stern R.A, McKee A.C. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: A potential late effect of sport-related concussive and subconcussive head trauma. Clin Sports Med. 2011;30:179–188 xi. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Geinisman Y, Berry R.W, Disterhoft J.F, Power J.M, Van der Zee E.A. Associative learning elicits the formation of multiple-synapse boutons. J Neurosci. 2001;21:5568–5573. [PubMed]
Geinisman Y, deToledo-Morrell L, Morrell F. Induction of long-term potentiation is associated with an increase in the number of axospinous synapses with segmented postsynaptic densities. Brain Res. 1991;566:77–88. [PubMed]
Geinisman Y, deToledo-Morrell L, Morrell F, Heller R.E, Rossi M, Parshall R.F. Structural synaptic correlate of long-term potentiation: Formation of axospinous synapses with multiple, completely partitioned transmission zones. Hippocampus. 1993;3:435–445. [PubMed]
Geinisman Y, Disterhoft J.F, Gundersen H.J, McEchron M.D, Persina I.S, Power J.M. et al. Remodeling of hippocampal synapses after hippocampus-dependent associative learning. J Comp Neurol. 2000;417:49–59. [PubMed]
Gibson R.H. The Skin Senses. Kenshalo D.R, editor. Charles C Thomas; Springfield, IL: 1968. pp. 223–261. Electrical stimulation of pain and touch. In.
Gisabella B, Bolshakov V.Y, Benes F.M. Regulation of synaptic plasticity in a schizophrenia model. Proc Natl Acad Scie U S A. 2005;102:13301–13306. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Goldstein L.E, Fisher A.M, Tagge C.A, Zhang X.L, Velisek L, Sullivan J.A. et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in blast-exposed military veterans and a blast neurotrauma mouse model. Sci Trans Med. 2012;4:134ra160. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Guerrero J.L, Thurman D.J, Sniezek J.E. Emergency department visits associated with traumatic brain injury: United States, 1995–1996. Brain Inj. 2000;14:181–186. [PubMed]
Haase S.J, Kaczmarek K.A. Electrotactile perception of scatterplots on the fingertips and abdomen. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2005;43:283–289. [PubMed]
Heasman P.A, Beynon A.D. Quantitative diameter analysis of lingual nerve axons in man. J Dental Res. 1986;65:1016–1019. [PubMed]
Johansson R.S, Vallbo A.B. Detection of tactile stimuli. Thresholds of afferent units related to psychophysical thresholds in the human hand. J Physiol. 1979a;297:405–422. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Johansson R.S, Vallbo A.B. Tactile sensibility in the human hand: Relative and absolute densities of four types of mechanoreceptive units in glabrous skin. J Physiol. 1979b;286:283–300. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Jones D.G, Calverley R.K. Frequency of occurrence of perforated synapses in developing rat neocortex. Neurosci Lett. 1991;129:189–192. [PubMed]
Jones D.G, Itarat W, Calverley R.K. Perforated synapses and plasticity. A developmental overview. Molec Neurobiol. 1991;5:217–228. [PubMed]
Kaczmarek K, Bach-y-Rita P, Tompkins W.J, Webster J.G. A tactile vision-substitution system for the blind: Computer-controlled partial image sequencing. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1985;32:602–608. [PubMed]
Kaczmarek K.A. The tongue display unit (TDU) for electrotactile spatiotemporal pattern presentation. Scientia Iran. 2011;18:1476–1485.
Kaczmarek K.A, Bach-y-Rita P. Tactile displays. In: Barfield W, Furness T, editors. Virtual Environments and Advanced Interface Design. Oxford University Press; New York: 1995. pp. 349–414. In.
Kaczmarek K.A, Haase S.J. Pattern identification and perceived stimulus quality as a function of stimulation waveform on a fingertip-scanned electrotactile display. IEEE Trans Neural Sys Rehab Eng. 2003a;11:9–16. [PubMed]
Kaczmarek K.A, Haase S.J. Pattern identification as a function of stimulation current on a fingertip-scanned electrotactile display. IEEE Trans Neural Sys Rehab Eng. 2003b;11:269–275. [PubMed]
Kaczmarek K.A, Tyler M.E. Proc ASME Dyn Sys Contr Div. DSC 69–2. ASME; Orlando, FL: 2000. pp. 1239–1243. Effect of electrode geometry and intensity control method on comfort of electrotactile stimulation on the tongue.
Kaczmarek K.A, Tyler M.E, Bach-y-Rita P. Proc 16th Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. IEEE; Baltimore, MD: 1994. pp. 940–941. Electrotactile haptic display on the fingertips: Preliminary results.
Kaczmarek K.A, Tyler M.E, Brisben A.J, Johnson K.O. The afferent neural response to electrotactile stimuli: Preliminary results. IEEE Trans Rehab Eng. 2000;8:268–270. [PubMed]
Kaczmarek K.A, Webster J.G, Bach-y-Rita P, Tompkins W.J. Electrotactile and vibrotactile displays for sensory substitution systems. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1991;38:1–16. [PubMed]
Kaczmarek K.A, Webster J.G, Radwin R.G. Maximal dynamic range electrotactile stimulation waveforms. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1992;39:701–715. [PubMed]
Kirkwood A, Lee H.K, Bear M.F. Co-regulation of long-term potentiation and experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in visual cortex by age and experience. Nature. 1995;375:328–331. [PubMed]
Kupers R, Ptito M. Compensatory plasticity and cross-modal reorganization following early visual deprivation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013;41:36–52. [PubMed]
Lambert S, Sampaio E, Mauss Y, Scheiber C. Blindness and brain plasticity: Contribution of mental imagery? An fMRI study. Brain Res. 2004;20:1–11. [PubMed]
Langlois Orman J.A.K, Zaloshnja J.F, E. Miller T. Epidemiology. In: Silver J.M, McAllister T.W, Yudofsk S.C, editors. Textbook of Traumatic Brain Injury. American Psychiatric Association; Washington, DC: 2011. pp. 3–22. In.
Larkman A.U, Jack J.J. Synaptic plasticity: Hippocampal LTP. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1995;5:324–334. [PubMed]
Levenes C, Daniel H, Crepel F. Long-term depression of synaptic transmission in the cerebellum: Cellular and molecular mechanisms revisited. Progr Neurobiol. 1998;55:79–91. [PubMed]
Li Y, Meloni E.G, Carlezon W.A Jr, Milad M.R, Pitman R.K, Nader K. et al. Learning and reconsolidation implicate different synaptic mechanisms. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110:4798–4803. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Machts L. Germany: 1920. Device for converting light effects into effects perceptible by blind persons.
Maletic-Savatic M, Malinow R, Svoboda K. Rapid dendritic morphogenesis in CA1 hippocampal dendrites induced by synaptic activity. Science. 1999;283:1923–1927. [PubMed]
Matteau I, Kupers R, Ricciardi E, Pietrini P, Ptito M. Beyond visual, aural and haptic movement perception: hMT+ is activated by electrotactile motion stimulation of the tongue in sighted and in congenitally blind individuals. Brain Res Bull. 2010;82:264–270. [PubMed]
Max W, Rice DP M.E. Head injuries: Costs and consequences. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1991:76–91.
McGregor K, Pentland B. Head injury rehabilitation in the U.K.: An economic perspective. Social Scie Med. 1997;45:295–303. [PubMed]
McKee A.C, Cantu R.C, Nowinski C.J, Hedley-Whyte E.T, Gavett B.E, Budson A.E. et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in athletes: Progressive tauopathy after repetitive head injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2009;68:709–735. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
McKee A.C, Stein T.D, Nowinski C.J, Stern R.A, Daneshvar D.H, Alvarez V.E. et al. The spectrum of disease in chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Brain. 2013;136:43–64. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
McKinlay W.W, Brooks D.N, Bond M.R, Martinage D.P, Marshall M.M. The short-term outcome of severe blunt head injury as reported by relatives of the injured persons. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1981;44:527–533. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
McMillan T.M, Teasdale G.M, Weir C.J, Stewart E. Death after head injury: The 13 year outcome of a case control study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2011;82:931–935. [PubMed]
Morice E, Andreae L.C, Cooke S.F, Vanes L, Fisher E.M, Tybulewicz V.L. et al. Preservation of long-term memory and synaptic plasticity despite short-term impairments in the Tc1 mouse model of Down syndrome. Learn Memory. 2008;15:492–500. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Neuman D.A. Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System: Foundations for Rehabilitation. Mosby/Elsevier; Philadelphia, PA: 2009.
Nudo R.J, Plautz E.J, Frost S.B. Role of adaptive plasticity in recovery of function after damage to motor cortex. Muscle Nerve. 2001;24:1000–1019. [PubMed]
Omalu B, Hammers J.L, Bailes J, Hamilton R.L, Kamboh M.I, Webster G. et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in an Iraqi war veteran with posttraumatic stress disorder who committed suicide. Neurosurg Focus. 2011;31:E3. [PubMed]
Pai A.B, Jasper N.R, Cifu D.X. Rehabilitation of injured U.S servicemember with traumatic brain injury, stroke, spinal cord injury, and bilateral amputations: A case report. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2012;49:1191–1196. [PubMed]
Perry J. Gait analysis: Technology and the clinician. J Rehabil Res Dev. 1994;31:vii. [PubMed]
Ponsford J, Downing M, Olver J, Ponsford M, Acher R, Carty M. et al. Longitudinal follow-up of patients with traumatic brain injury: Outcome at 2, 5, and 10-years post-injury. J Neurotrauma. 2013;31:64–77. [PubMed]
Portaccio E, Goretti B, Zipoli V, Iudice A, Pina D.D, Malentacchi G.M. et al. Reliability, practice effects, and change indices for Rao’s Brief Repeatable Battery. Mult Scler. 2010;16:611–617. [PubMed]
Price J, Drevets W. Neural circuits underlying the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Trends Cogni Sci. 2012;16:61–71. [PubMed]
Ptito M, Moesgaard S.M, Gjedde A, Kupers R. Cross-modal plasticity revealed by electrotactile stimulation of the tongue in the congenitally blind. Brain. 2005;128:606–614. [PubMed]
Reilly J.P. Applied Bioelectricity. Springer; New York: 1998.
Reis J, Schambra H.M, Cohen L.G, Buch E.R, Fritsch B, Zarahn E. et al. Noninvasive cortical stimulation enhances motor skill acquisition over multiple days through an effect on consolidation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106:1590–1595. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Rigg J.L, Mooney S.R. Concussions and the military: Issues specific to service members. PM & R. 2011;3:S380–386. [PubMed]
Robinson B.S, Cook J.L, Richburg C.M, Price S.E. Use of an electrotactile vestibular substitution system to facilitate balance and gait of an individual with gentamicin-induced bilateral vestibular hypofunction and bilateral transtibial amputation. J Neurol Phys Therapy. 2009;33:150–159. [PubMed]
Rohling M.L, Faust M.E, Beverly B, Demakis G. Effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation following acquired brain injury: A meta-analytic re-examination of Cicerone 2000. et al. systematic reviews. Neuropsychology. 2009;2005;23:20–39.
Rollman G.B. Electrocutaneous stimulation. In: Dev F.A, Geldard, editors. Proc Conf Cutan Comm Sys. 1973. pp. 38–51. Psychonomic Society.
Rutland-Brown W, Langlois J.A, Bazarian J.J, Warden D. Improving identification of traumatic brain injury after nonmilitary bomb blasts. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2008;23:84–91. [PubMed]
Rutland-Brown W, Langlois J.A, Thomas K.E, Xi Y.L. Incidence of traumatic brain injury in the United States, 2003. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2006;21:544–548. [PubMed]
Sampaio E, Maris S, Bach-y-Rita P. Brain plasticity: ’visual’ acuity of blind persons via the tongue. Brain Res. 2001;908:204–207. [PubMed]
Schaning M.A, Kaczmarek K.A. A high-voltage bipolar transconductance amplifier for electrotactile stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed. Eng. 2008;55:2433–2443. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Schneier A.J, Shields B.J, Hostetler S.G, Xiang H, Smith G.A. Incidence of pediatric traumatic brain injury and associated hospital resource utilization in the United States. Pediatrics. 2006;118:483–492. [PubMed]
Segond H, Weiss D, Kawalec M, Sampaio E. Perceiving space and optical cues via a visuo-tactile sensory substitution system: A methodological approach for training of blind subjects for navigation. Perception. 2013;42:508–528. [PubMed]
Segond H, Weiss D, Sampaio E. Human spatial navigation via a visuo-tactile sensory substitution system. Perception. 2005;34:1231–1249. [PubMed]
Selassie A.W, Zaloshnja E, Langlois J.A, Miller T, Jones P, Steiner C. Incidence of long-term disability following traumatic brain injury hospitalization, United States, 2003. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2008;23:123–131. [PubMed]
Shin R.M, Tsvetkov E, Bolshakov V.Y. Spatiotemporal asymmetry of associative synaptic plasticity in fear conditioning pathways. Neuron. 2006;52:883–896. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Shin R.M, Tully K, Li Y, Cho J.H, Higuchi M, Suhara T. et al. Hierarchical order of coexisting pre- and postsynaptic forms of long-term potentiation at synapses in amygdala. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107:19073–19078. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Silver J.M, Kramer R, Greenwald S, Weissman M. The association between head injuries and psychiatric disorders: Findings from the New Haven NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. Brain Inj. 2001;15:935–945. [PubMed]
Spitz G, Maller J.J, O’Sullivan R, Ponsford J.L. White Matter integrity following traumatic brain injury: The association with severity of injury and cognitive functioning. Brain Topogr. 2013;26:648–660. [PubMed]
Strauss E.H. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary. Oxford University Press; Oxford, UK: 2006.
Szeto A.Y, Saunders F.A. Electrocutaneous stimulation for sensory communication in rehabilitation engineering. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1982;29:300–308. [PubMed]
Szeto A.Y.J, Riso R.R. Sensory feedback using electrical stimulation of the tactile sense. In: Smith R.V, Leslie J.H Jr, editors. Rehabilitation Engineering. CRC Press; Boca Raton, FL: 1990. pp. 29–78. In.
Tate D.F, Shenton M.E, Bigler E.D. Introduction to the brain imaging and behavior special issue on neuroimaging findings in mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Imaging Behav. 2012;6:103–107. [PubMed]
Taub E, Uswatte G, Elbert T. New treatments in neurorehabilitation founded on basic research. Nat Rev. 2002;3:228–236. [PubMed]
Taylor B.C, Hagel E.M, Carlson K.F, Cifu D.X, Cutting A, Bidelspach D.E. et al. Prevalence and costs of co-occurring traumatic brain injury with and without psychiatric disturbance and pain among Afghanistan and Iraq War Veteran V.A. users. Med Care. 2012;50:342–346. [PubMed]
Thurman D. The epidemiology and economics of head trauma. In: Miller L.P, Hayes R.L, Newcomb J.K, editors. Head Trauma: Basic, Preclinical, and Clinical Directions. John Wiley & Sons; New York: 2001. In.
Thurman D, Guerrero J. Trends in hospitalization associated with traumatic brain injury. JAMA. 1999;282:954–957. [PubMed]
Thurman D.J, Branche C.M, Sniezek J.E. The epidemiology of sports-related traumatic brain injuries in the United States: Recent developments. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1998;13:1–8. [PubMed]
Toni N, Buchs P.A, Nikonenko I, Bron C.R, Muller D. LTP promotes formation of multiple spine synapses between a single axon terminal and a dendrite. Nature. 1999;402:421–425. [PubMed]
Tschiriew S, Watteville A.D. On the electrical excitability of the skin. Brain. 1879;2:163–180.
Tully K, Bolshakov V.Y. Emotional enhancement of memory: How norepinephrine enables synaptic plasticity. Molec Brain. 2010;3:15. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Tully K, Li Y, Bolshakov V.Y. Keeping in check painful synapses in central amygdala. Neuron. 2007a;56:757–759. [PubMed]
Tully K, Li Y, Tsvetkov E, Bolshakov V.Y. Norepinephrine enables the induction of associative long-term potentiation at thalamo-amygdala synapses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007b;104:14146–14150. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Tyler M, Danilov Y, Bach Y.R.P. Closing an open-loop control system: Vestibular substitution through the tongue. J Integr Neurosci. 2003;2:159–164. [PubMed]
Tyler M.E, Braun J.G, Danilov Y.P. Spatial mapping of electrotactile sensation threshold and intensity range on the human tongue: Initial results. Proc IEEE Eng Med Bio. Soc. 2009:559–562. [PubMed]
Vallbo A.B, Johansson R.S. Properties of cutaneous mechanoreceptors in the human hand related to touch sensation. Human Neurobiol. 1984;3:3–14. [PubMed]
Vallbo A.B, Olsson K.A, Westberg K.G, Clark F.J. Microstimulation of single tactile afferents from the human hand. Sensory attributes related to unit type and properties of receptive fields. Brain. 1984;107(Pt 3):727–749. [PubMed]
Vuillerme N, Cuisinier R. Head position-based electrotactile tongue biofeedback affects postural responses to Achilles tendon vibration in humans. Exp Brain Res. 2008;186:503–508. [PubMed]
Vuillerme N, Pinsault N, Chenu O, Demongeot J, Payan Y, Danilov Y. Sensory supplementation system based on electrotactile tongue biofeedback of head position for balance control. Neurosci Lett. 2008;431:206–210. [PubMed]
Watson T, Koutsikou S, Cerminara N, Flavell C, Crook J, Lumb B. et al. The olivo-cerebellar system and its relationship to survival circuits. Front Neural Circuits. 2013;7:72. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Wehman P, Kregel J, Keyser-Marcus L, Sherron-Targett P, Campbell L, West M. et al. Supported employment for persons with traumatic brain injury: A preliminary investigation of long-term follow-up costs and program efficiency. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84:192–196. [PubMed]
Wehman P, Kregel J, West M, Cifu D. Return to work for patients with traumatic brain injury. Analysis of costs. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1994;73:280–282. [PubMed]
Weiller C, Ramsay S.C, Wise R.J, Friston K.J, Frackowiak R.S. Individual patterns of functional reorganization in the human cerebral cortex after capsular infarction. Ann Neurol. 1993;33:181–189. [PubMed]
Wilde E.A, McCauley S.R, Hunter J.V, Bigler E.D, Chu Z, Wang Z.J. et al. Diffusion tensor imaging of acute mild traumatic brain injury in adolescents. Neurology. 2008;70:948–955. [PubMed]
Wildenberg J.C, Tyler M.E, Danilov Y.P, Kaczmarek K.A, Meyerand M.E. Sustained cortical and subcortical neuromodulation induced by electrical tongue stimulation. Brain Imaging Behav. 2010;4:199–211. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Wildenberg J.C, Tyler M.E, Danilov Y.P, Kaczmarek K.A, Meyerand M.E. Electrical tongue stimulation normalizes activity within the motion-sensitive brain network in balance-impaired subjects as revealed by group independent component analysis. Brain Connect. 2011a;1:255–265. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Wildenberg J.C, Tyler M.E, Danilov Y.P, Kaczmarek K.A, Meyerand M.E. High-resolution fMRI detects neuromodulation of individual brainstem nuclei by electrical tongue stimulation in balance-impaired individuals. NeuroImage. 2011b;56:2129–2137. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Wildenberg J.C, Tyler M.E, Danilov Y.P, Kaczmarek K.A, Meyerand M.E. Altered connectivity of the balance processing network after tongue stimulation in balance-impaired individuals. Brain Connect. 2013;3:87–97. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Zaloshnja E, Miller T, Langlois J.A, Selassie A.W. Prevalence of long-term disability from traumatic brain injury in the civilian population of the United States, 2005. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2008;23:394–400. [PubMed]
Zikopoulos B, Barbas H. Altered neural connectivity in excitatory and inhibitory cortical circuits in autism. Front Human Neurosci. 2013;7:609. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Zucker R.S. Calcium- and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1999;9:305–313. [PubMed]
Zucker R.S, Regehr W.G. Short-term synaptic plasticity. Annu Revi Physiol. 2002;64:355–405. [PubMed]
