polozova_vp_english_for_masters_degree_students

Livestock are also subject to other diseases. Veterinary certificates are often required before transporting, selling or showing animals. Disease-free areas are often rigorously enforced. Foot and mouth disease (FMD) led to a massive government sheep and cattle kill in the north of England in 2001. Six million animals were killed to stop an outbreak with 2000 confirmed cases. Bison which wander out of Yellowstone National Park are routinely shot to prevent the possible spread of brucellosis to Montana cattle.

Animal Husbandry

Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock. As such, it is a vital skill for farmers, and in many ways as much art as it is science. The science of animal husbandry, called animal science, is taught in many universities and colleges around the world. Students of animal science may pursue degrees in veterinary medicine or zootecnics following graduation, or go on to pursue master's degrees or doctorates in disciplines such as nutrition, genetics and breeding, or reproductive physiology. Graduates of these programs may be found working in the veterinary and human pharmaceutical industries, the livestock and pet supply and feed industries, or in academia. It is one of the oldest world professions. Historically, certain sub-professions within the field of Animal Husbandry are specifically named according to the animals which are cared for.

A swineherd is a person who cares for hogs and pigs (older English term: swine). A shepherd is a person who cares for sheep. A goatherd cares for goats. A cowherd cares for cattle. In previous years, it was common to have herds which were made up of sheep and goats. In this case, the person tending them was called a shepherd. In more modern times, cowboys (or in Spanish: gauchos) rode horses and participated in cattle drives to watch over cows and bulls raised primarily for food.

Today, herd managers often oversee thousands of animals and many staff. Farms and ranches may employ breeders, herd health specialists, feeders, and milkers to help care for the animals. Techniques such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer are frequently used not only as methods to guarantee that females are bred but to help improve herd genetics. This in turn improves the ability of the animals to convert feed to meat, milk, or fiber more efficiently and improves the quality of the final product.

Milk

Milk is known to be highly nutritious, versatile food that has been used by humans since the beginning of recorded time. People enjoy drinking milk in its natural form and also use it to make a wide range of food products (cream, butter, yoghurt, cheese, ice cream).

31

Humans drink the milk produced from a variety of domesticated mammals including cows, goats, sheep, camels, reindeer, buffaloes, llama. But cow milk is the main type of milk used for commercial production and consumption throughout the world. Cow milk has been found to contain about 3.5 to 5 per cent fat, which is dispersed throughout the milk in globules. Scientists consider sweet taste of milk to be due to lactose, a kind of sugar found only in milk. The most important protein in milk is casein, accounting for 80 per cent of milk protein. Other proteins present in milk include albumin and globulin.

Milk contains many minerals, the most abundant of which are calcium and phosphorus. It also has been proved to be an excellent source of vitamins A and B. The milk to be sold commercially should be fortified with vitamin D.

Many factors influence the composition of milk, including breed, genetic constitution of the cow, age of the cow, stage of lactation, interval between milkings and certain disease conditions. In general, the type of feed only slightly affects the composition of milk.

In most countries, almost half of the milk consumed is sold as fresh pasteurized whole, low-fat or skim milk. The rest part of the milk is processed into more stable dairy products of worldwide commerce, such as cream, butter, cheese, dried milks, ice cream, condensed milk.

Milk in its natural form, directly from a cow, is called raw milk. It is an extremely versatile product from which a countless number of commercial products are derived.

Dairy farming dealing with production and use of milk and milk products is one of the important branches of agriculture in many countries. Dairy husbandry includes the management of dairy cows, the cultivation of crops for feed, the production of milk and cream, and the manufacture of butter, cheese, ice cream. Individual high milkproducing cows can produce up to 10,000 litres of milk annually. The best cows can be selected and poor producers can be replaced by better cattle.

Ecological Strategy

Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystems, and the field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of farming, whether it be organic, conventional, intensive or extensive. Furthermore, it is not defined by certain management practices, such as the use of natural enemies in place of insecticides, or polyculture in place of monoculture.

Additionally, agroecologists do not unanimously oppose technology or inputs in agriculture but instead assess how, when, and if technology can be used in conjunction with natural, social and human assets. Agroecology proposes a contextor site-specific manner of studying agroecosystems, and as such, it recognizes that there is no universal formula or recipe for the success and maximum well-being of an agroecosystem.

32

Instead, agroecologists may study questions related to the four system properties of agroecosystems: productivity, stability, sustainability and equitability. As opposed to disciplines that are concerned with only one or some of these properties, agroecologists see all four properties as interconnected and integral to the success of an agroecosystem. Recognizing that these properties are found on varying spatial scales, agroecologists do not limit themselves to the study of agroecosystems at any one scale: farm, community, or global.

Agroecologists study these four properties through an interdisciplinary lens, using natural sciences to understand elements of agroecosystems such as soil properties and plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the effects of farming practices on rural communities, economic constraints to developing new production methods, or cultural factors determining farming practices.

Agroecologists do not always agree about what agroecology is or should be in the long-term. Different definitions of the term agroecology can be distinguished largely by the specificity with which one defines the term “ecology,” as well as the term’s potential political connotations. Definitions of agroecology, therefore, may be first grouped according to the specific contexts within which they situate agriculture.

Agroecology is defined by the OECD as “the study of the relation of agricultural crops and environment.” This definition refers to the "-ecology" part of "agroecology" narrowly as the natural environment. Following this definition, an agroecologist would study agriculture's various relationships with soil health, water quality, air quality, mesoand micro-fauna, surrounding flora, environmental toxins, and other envirnomental contexts.

What is Ecology?

What is ecology and how does it affect you? Simply speaking, ecology is the

term for the scientific studies that are done on the earth and everything that affects it. This includes wildlife, humanity, nature and in some cases environmental issues. These studies are done from a variety of different viewpoints and by using many different techniques. Ecology covers a broad area of studies and research that provides information on how organisms interact and affect each other and the chemical and physical environment of each.

When you ask different people the question “what is ecology”, you could get many different answers. This is because ecology is such a broad area to cover. You may be told that it is the study of humanity and its impact on the earth or that it is the evolution of the human race. Evolution is the result of environmental changes over time and it has an impact on every living creature.

Ecology is the study of the global patterns that occur within the boundaries of the biosphere and that is the answer that you will get from many scientists when

you ask, what is ecology? Still yet another scientist would answer the question “what

33

is ecology” by saying it is the study of wildlife and organism and their effects on the

environment. All of these answers are correct because ecology is a huge subject that can’t be narrowed down to just a few topics.

Having an understanding of ecology is critical to the survival of the human species. With populations increasing and natural resources running thin, the more

we learn the better we will be able to make the changes needed to preserve the natural resources for the generations of the future.

Studying ecology requires many experiments that are conducted in

laboratories and out in the field. These experiments help scientists to learn about the environment, natural resources and more. The importance of ecology has grown enormously just over the last few years and will surely continue to grow in the

future.

So what is ecology? You might say it is the answer to many problems that now

face the environment due to all the changes that have taken place over the centuries. Ecology analyzes each element of the ecosystem and everything it consists of. It teaches how all living things, no matter how large or small, affect everything else in

the world.

To find the answers needed to the many problems humanity now faces and to ensure the future of generations to come, the study of ecology is imperative. There is so much to be learned from the environment and every creature that inhabits the

earth.

Ecology Problems

Ecology problems are being studied by scientists from around the world. The world itself is facing a number of very risky changes that could potentially destroy

life on the planet. While many scientists believe that changes can still be made to stop the deconstruction and to repair the problems, many others believe some areas are

lost. For example, in the global ecology, many species have gone extinct long before they were discovered and marveled at. At the same time, many medications and unique plants have been lost because their habitats have been destroyed, and with them the healing powers that so many people need have disappeared.

There are ecology problems on a grand scale. In ecology, the study is of animals and plants and the interactions they have with each other and the environment

around them. By studying this information, scientists can better understand the roles that each organism and microorganism has on the next. In addition, they can see what problems exist, especially those caused by humans. Anytime humans come into contact with an ecosystem, they leave changes and they disrupt the ecosystem in many ways. In some situations, this is very deep damage. In others it is minor.

Yet, ecology problems happen in most situations.

Two of the largest ecology problems have to do with the global ecology or the way that the ecosystems on the planet interact with each other. These problems are

34

ozone depletion and global warming, two very different problems equally

troubling.

Global warming is an ecology problem that is caused by the buildup of gasses (which hold in heat) in the atmosphere. Global warming is often called a greenhouse

effect. In a greenhouse, heat is allowed to come into the greenhouse, to grow the plants, but it is unable to escape again. This is similar to what is happening on a global

scale with global warming.

The other large ecology problems centre on ozone depletion. This is different from global warming because here you have the actual destruction of the ozone layer.

Many chemicals cause this because they interact with the °zone. They in effect leave a

hole that lets in UV rays.

These ecology problems are very serious and both are a threat to life on Earth. The more people study and get to know what is happening, the better decisions they can make for the future. For many people, these seem like problems for someone else to deal with, but in effect, they have a direct effect on you, and every person can help.

PRESENTATION

Презентация — общественное представление чего-либо нового, недавно появившегося, созданного; иформационный или рекламный инструмент, позволяющий сообщить нужную информацию об объекте презентации в удобной для получателя форме.

What makes a good presentation?

Without exception, all good presenters have one thing in common - enthusiasm, both for their subject and for the business of presenting it. Enthusiasm is infectious. Audiences can't help but be affected by it. And the best public speakers always make what they say sound as if it really matters. They know that if it matters to them, it will matter to their audience.

Many things contribute to the success of a presentation - new and unusual content, a clear structure, a good sense of timing, imaginative use of visual aids, ability to make people laugh and think. But above and beyond all of these is enthusiasm. What kind of language and what kind of techniques will best show your enthusiasm for your subject?

Introductions and welcome.

Good morning, ladies and gentleman. My name's John Jones. I'm head of sales at Acme Services.

I would like to thank you for inviting me here today to talk about...

35

I would like to thank you all for attending this presentation. I plan to be brief.

I shall only take about fifteen minutes of your time. If you have any questions, I'd be very happy to answer them at the end.

Feel free to interrupt me if you have any questions during my presentation. (Not recommended unless your English level is good.)

Explaining the purpose of your presentation.

I'd like to give you a brief presentation about...

The subject of my talk is...

I'm going to talk about...

My topic today is...

My talk is concerned with...

The purpose of my talk is to...

Giving an overview of the presentation.

I'm going to divide this talk into four parts.

There are a number of points I'd like to make.

Basically, I have three things to say.

This talk is designed to be a springboard for discussion on the topic of...

I'd like to begin by…

Let's begin by...

First of all, I'll discuss...

and then I'll go on to talk about

Then... / Next,... Secondly,... / Thirdly,... Finally,... / Lastly,...

Finishing a section.

That's all I have to say about...

So, in this section, we've looked at...

Well, I think I've said enough about.

Starting a new section.

Moving on now to

Turning now to...

Let's turn now to

So that brings me now to the topic of...

The next area I'd like to focus on next is

Now, we'll move on to...

I'd now like to discuss...

Let's now look at...

36

Analysing a point in your presentation.

Where does that lead us?

Let's consider this in more detail...

I'd like to elaborate on what I said earlier about

What does this mean for...?

Translated into real terms, this means that...

Why is this important?

The significance of this is...

On the one hand,...

...on the other hand,...

Giving examples.

For example,...

A good example of this is...

As an illustration, I'd like to mention...

To give you an example,...

To illustrate this point,...

Referring to photos, graphs or tables.

If you'd like to look at this graph, you'll see...

Take a look at this table. Here, we can see quite clearly that...

This chart illustrates...

Let me show you a pie-chart that will make everything much clearer.

Paraphrasing and clarifying.

Simply put,...

In other words,...

So what I'm saying is..

To put it more simply…

To put it another way,...

Summarising the content of your presentation.

To sum up,...

To summarise,...

In short,...

Right then, let's sum up, shall we?

Let's summarise briefly what we've looked at...

If I can just sum up the main points,...

Finally, let me remind you of some of the issues we've covered.

So, to remind you of what I've covered in this talk,...

Unfortunately, I seem to have run out of time, so I'll conclude very briefly by saying

that...

I'd now like to recap on the points I've mentioned.

37

Closing the presentation.

To conclude… In conclusion,...

Well, that covers all I wanted to say today. Before I finish let me say just one last thing. That brings me to the end of my presentation.

It just remains for me to say, thank you very much for coming and I hope you have found this presentation useful.

Invitation to ask questions.

Does anyone have any questions or comments? Please feel free to ask questions.

If you would like me to elaborate on any point I've made today, please ask. Would you like to ask any questions?

Any questions?

Checking comprehension.

Does that answer your question? Is that clear?

May we go on then to the next question? I hope I've made that clear.

So what you're saying is,...

...is that right?

It seems I don't have time to answer any more of your questions now. But please feel free to come and talk to me later on today.

The Top 10 effective presentation techniques.

1. Use visual aids

Using pictures in your presentations instead of words can double the chances of meeting your objectives.

2. Keep it short and sweet

There is an old proverb that said – “No one ever complained of a presentation being too short.” Nothing kills a presentation more than going on too long.

3. Use the rule of three

A simple technique is that people tend to only remember three things. Work out what the three messages that you want your audience to take away and structure your presentation around them. Use a maximum of three points on a slide.

4. Rehearse

38

Practice makes for perfect performance. Many experts say that rehearsal is the biggest single thing that you can do to improve your performance. Perform your presentation out loud at least four times. One of these should be in front of a real scary audience. Family, friends or colleagues. Even the dog is better than nothing.

5. Tell stories

All presentations are a type of theatre. Tell stories and anecdotes to help illustrate points. It all helps to make your presentation more effective and memorable.

6. Lose the bullet points – don’t put your speaker notes up on the screen

Bullet points are the kiss of death for most presentations. Most people use bullet points as a form of speaker notes. To make your presentation more effective put your speaker notes in your notes and not up on the screen.

7. Video yourself

Set up a video camera and video yourself presenting. You will see all sorts of mistakes that you are making, from how you are standing, if you are jangling keys, to how well your presentation is structured.

8. Know what slide is coming next

You should always know when presenting which slide is coming up next. It sounds very powerful when you say “On the next slide you will see…”, rather than a period of confusion when the next slide appears.

9. Have a back-up plan

Murphy’s law normally applies during a presentation. Technology not working, power cuts, projector blowing a bulb, spilling coffee on your front, not enough power leads, no loudspeakers, presentation displays strangely on the laptop – all of these are things that have happened in presentations that I have given.

Have a back-up plan. Take with you the following items – a printed out set of slides – (you can hold these up to the audience if you need to), a CD or data stick of your presentation, a laptop with your slides on it. Just in case it goes wrong.

Guess what? When you have back-ups – you seldom need to use them.

10. Check out the presentation room

Arrive early and check out the presentation room. If you can make sure that you see your slides loaded onto the PC and working on the screen. Work out where you will need to stand.

Your presentation should have the following structure:

39

1. An Introduction

This is the most important part of your presentation because the audience will make judgements about you. They will decide in the first few minutes what you are like. They will also decide whether you deserve their attention. Therefore, it is very important that you plan carefully what you want to say in the introduction.

Try to do these things in your introduction

Get the audience’s attention.

Introduce yourself.

Explain why you are there.

Explain what you hope to achieve.

Build a good relationship with the audience.

2. The Body

You should use this part of the presentation to explain key information. Explain your points clearly one at a time so your audience can follow what you are saying. Remembeto keep your points simple and short. Try not to give too much information, otherwise the audience will not remember your message.

3. The Conclusion

It is important to create a lasting impression in your conclusion. Use the last couple of minutes to repeat important points and key information. Leave some time for discussion, questions and answers at the end of the presentation. Don’t forget to thank your audience for attending and listening.

The Visual Aids

These are things (resources) you could use to present your message. It is important to use visual aids because they can: help the audience focus on what you are saying, make the presentation more interesting, help to explain the points you make more clearly, provide variety.

Preparing your visual aids

When preparing your visual aids make sure you do these things:

1.Check that the size of the print is large enough for the audience to see.

2.Don’t type all your text in capital letters as this makes it more difficult to read.

3.Don’t use long sentences – use bullet points and numbers to organize your key

40